About the Book
Book 1: Environment
and Early Patterns of Adaptation
Book 2: Harappan Civilization
Book 3: Evolution of
Early Indian Society
Book 4: India : 6th to 4th Century B.C.
Book 5:
Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.
Book 6: India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
Book 7:
State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
Book 8:
Indian Polity : B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.
Book 9:
Transition to Early Medieval India
Book 1: Environment and Early Patterns of Adaptation
This block is divided into two parts. The first
two Units introduce to you the major geographical regions of India and
sub-regions within them. They also tell you how the regions evolved in history
owing to interplay of different factors. You know that the Indian sub- continent
is vast in size and its different parts have-different characteristics in terms
of elevation (height) soil, rainfall, drainage
system or the way major rivers and their tributaries flow. An understanding of
these different sets of characteristics of different areas or regions is
necessary because, as you will read later, human activities in the Indian
sub-continent were not uniform in nature, nor were similar activities taking
place simultaneously everywhere. This is particularly true of the period with which
this course is concerned.
At the early stages of social evolution the
shape of history was largely dependent on how human communities were
interacting with their environment, and the nature of this interaction laid the
foundation of how different regions were formed. Unit 2 tells you how some
region took shape comparatively early and also why other regions took time to
assume recognizable shapes, although no region ever remained in complete
isolation from one another. The unit also tells you that despite regional
differences there were common traits in social organization, in religion, in
the ideal of kingship, etc. which came to characterize all regions of the sub-
continent. Thus, there emerged the idea of a common cultural identity which
bound different regions together.
In units 3 and 4 you shall read about the
earliest stages of cultural evolution in the Indian
sub- continent. Unit 3 discusses how human communities lived essentially as
gatherers of food from their environment by adapting themselves to it and by
adapting appropriate techniques for preparing tools for this purpose. Even
though the pace of change in this stage of culture was slow the stages of the
evolution of tools which the human beings made to acquire food and process it,
nevertheless show both changes in the climate and in the natural environment in
which they lived and their capacity to adapt to this change. A major change,
which a renowned archaeologist once called Revolution, came when human
communities began to produce their own food by taking to farming and
domesticating animals. These changes also took a long span of time to take
shape because both involved human intervention in nature: wild plants had to be
domesticated for yielding cereals which could be processed as food and
selection of wild animals had to be made which could be domesticated and put to
varieties of use. Another change which this stage of culture brought about was
that human communities' tended to take to settled life, resulting in the
formation of earliest villages in history.
Although the beginnings of farming and animal
domestication have been generally associated with the Neolithic or New Stone
Age, which is named after the ground stone tools of this phase, this may not be
true for all areas. The earlier view that this change took place originally in
one region (West Asia)and then spread to other areas
is also being modified now. But whatever be the changes in scholarly views the
important point remains that as in other areas, in the Indian sub-continent too,
change-over to food production from hunting and gathering, in different regions
and in different points of time marked a new stage in the evolution of Indian
society.
We would also like to mention here that the
primary sources for knowing about the culture of the period under discussion in
this Block are archaeological sources. These have been unearthed by
Archaeologists through excavations carried out at various places.
Book 2: Harappan Civilization
The excavations carried out in Harappa and Mohenjodaro, in the twenties changed our perception of the
Indian history. The books written prior to these excavations
. would begin with the Vedic society dating back to about the 12th
Century B.C. Cities and Civilizations were believed to have emerged only around
the sixth century B.C. The discovery of the Harappan
Civilization altogether changed this perception. This was because now cities
were discovered which dated back to about 500 B.C. Ever
since its discovery 'the Harappan Civilization has
presented one of the most exciting areas of research in the Indian history.
Discoveries and excavations of new settlements and fresh approaches to research
have enriched our information about the Harappans.
New sites are still being discovered and our present day views about the Harappans might be radically changed by some future
discovery.
In Unit 5 we have discussed the processes by
which scholars established the chronology of the Harappan
Civilization. The excavations in the past twenty years have also. shown that the Harappan cities did
not come up suddenly as was believed earlier. They had a background in the
emergent agricultural communities of the previous period. These agriculturists
had already evolved small towns in the fourth
millennium B.C.
Unit 6 deals with the town planning and social
structure of the Harappans. Since, the Harappan scripthas not been
deciphered the arguments are based on inferences made out of the material
finds.
In Unit 7 we have discussed the trade network of
the Harappans. The Harappan
cities seem to have exploited resources from the surrounding regions. They also
participated in an international trade network linking them with the
Mesopotamians.
Religion and metaphysical speculation have been
important characteristics of ancient civilizations. Religion, dealing with the
ideals and metapliysical speculations, is difficult
to understand without the written word. That is why Unit 8 dealing with the
religion of Harappans is somewhat speculative. It
discusses the finds of various objects which are believed to have some
religious significance. However, the conclusions are largely tentative.
The end of the Harappan
cities has been ad intriguing problem for the scholars. In Unit 9 we discuss various
approaches to understanding the end of the Harappan
civilization. However, this Unit also goes on to evaluate' what survives from
the Harappan Civilization in the subsequent periods
of history.
Book 3: Evolution of Early Indian Society
" In Blocks 1
and 2 you first became familiar with India as a geographically defined country
and also learnt how the earliest human groups in this country adapted
themselves to the varieties of its environment. You have seen that the earliest
stage of cultural evolution is indicated by transition from hunting food
gathering to the stage when humans discovered how to produce food. This change
is revealed by archaeological evidence. Further changes - also revealed by
archaeology - are indicated by the settlements (both urban and non-urban) and
the various remains found in them of the Harappan
culture which, as you have learnt, was the most widespread culture in the
contemporary ancient world. It should however be remembered that processes of
cultural change are neither universal nor uniform. The areas covered by the Harappan culture had within themselves
significant variations. There were other parts of the subcontinent, either in
contact with the Harappan culture or away from its
sphere of influence, where there were no big or small cities In
these areas the cultural patterns were different from the patterns represented
by the Harappan culture. In Block 3 you shall be
reading mainly about the cultural profiles of these regions, although cultural
changes in the Harappan region also will be briefly
touched upon in this block (you will find it useful to read this along with
Block 2).
This Block will show that one should be
cautious in viewing change as a constant movement towards development;
Archaeology and History offers examples of backward movements. You have seen
how the highly urbanized Harappan culture suffered
gradual decline, it this block also you will read how the stable chalcolithic farming communities of western India suffered
decline and had to change their way of life because of environmental deterioration.
Despite such examples, the cultural profiles of different regions of India between the beginning of the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. are important to learn about for man) ( reasons. First this was the period when the nuclear of what emerged as agriculture-based village cultures were being formed in all the major regions of the subcontinent, You know that villages, with their rural population and centred round agricultural production, have been the backbone of Indian civilization through centuries. Except in some areas, the small settlements based on small scale farming of this period came to be transformed into regular rural settlements. of later periods. Initially, the cultures of the small farming settlements were chalcolithic, but from the beginning' of the first millennium B.C. iron came to be known to different cultures, for example, the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Upper Ganga Valley as also the culture of the megalith-builders of peninsular India. The impact of this metal on different cultures is yet to be properly assessed but the point Can be forcefully made that all the crucial ingredients of village life, such as' the techniques of cultivation (even of irrigation), production of varieties of major crops cultivated even today and combining farming with rearing domesticated animals were present in some measure or the other in the regional cultures of the subcontinent between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. This widespr.ead cultural pattern, of course, co-existed with other cultural patterns such as pastoralism and we must also remember that despite the emergence of farming communities, hunting and gathering continued as a way of life.
Secondly, you will learn from this Block (and
in greater detail from. Block 4) that among the various reasons discussed, the
pace of historical change in the Ganga Valley became
suddenly fast from the first millennium B.C. onward. By the middle of the first
millennium B.C. concrete examples of these changes ate noticeable
in the presence of large territories or mahajanapadas,
in the-monarchies and republics, in the big cities and in many other forms. Why
these changes first originated in the upper middle Ganga
is a complex question to answer. It was for long believed that the Aryans who,
came from outside India and whose activities may be learnt by studying the
Vedic texts composed by them had brought the civilizing influences With them,
But sustained research by modem historians shows:
a) Even if there were movements of 'Aryans' into the subcontinent, there was no large scale migration; nor was there displacement of local population as a result of conquest."
b) Rigveda, which is the earliest evidence available for the 'Aryans' or the tribes (Janas) of the Vedic texts, reflects a society which is essentially pastoral and not one which had a substantial agrarian base.
c) The area with which the tribes of the Rigveda were associated did not include the Ganga Valley. It was only at
Book 4: India : 6th to 4th
Century B.C.
In this Block we focus on the period extending
approximately from the 6th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. This period is
justifiably regarded as a very significant period of Indian history. We can
understand the significance of the period properly if we understand how the
changes taking place in the earlier periods matured in this phase and also how
this phase further influenced what happened after the fourth century B.C. In
Block 3 you have read how simple cultures based on farming and animal
domestication had emerged in different regions of India approximately from 2000
B.C. They first went through
the phase when copper was used and then at a latter
stage, around 1000 B.C., iron came to be used along with copper and other
materials. We must remember that all these cultures did not appear together in
different parts of India. For example, whereas a prosperous Cha1colithic
village like Dhar in south Rajasthan existed in 1800 RC., in Bengal Cha1colithic villages came up centuries
later. Secondly, even if the use of iron, the most convenient metal for making
implements, came to be known in different areas around 1000 B.C. its function
in society varied from period to period and from region to region. In the Ganga Valley, it seems that initially the most
important use of iron was for making weapons. Only later on, its use spread to
other areas of social life.
The shift to a sedentary society based on
agricultural production as main occupation is indicated also by earliest
available texts collectively known as the Vedic literature. We have seen (Block
3, unit 13) that society in the later Vedic phase was radically different from
the society of the early Vedic phase.
It was in the context of this agrarian situation
that a new type of society emerged in the Ganga
Valley and it was in the period between the 6th century B.C. and the 4th
century B.C. that the beginnings of this new type of society can be dated. This
is why historians place the beginnings of the early historic period of Indian
history in this phase. Let us highlight the main features of this new, early
historical, society (you shall be reading in detail on them in separate units
of this block):
(1) In literature, which refers to this period,
we hear of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas.
Some of these Janapadas are mentioned in later Vedic
sources and lists of Mahajanapadas appear in later,
particularly in Buddhist and Jaina texts. This
signifies that for the first time in Indian history regions with different
types of human settlements came to acquire specific geographical names. This is
how that a region was demarcated from other regions. This was perhaps necessary
because Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
were ruled by kings or a group of rulers and their areas of control and the
communities over which they ruled were different.
The incorporation of Janapadas
by powerful rulers of the Mahajanapadas led to
political conflicts between rulers and, in a later period, to the establishment
of the Magadhan empire (you
will see this in Block 5). This also meant that gradually the power of the ganasamghas (for example, the Licchavis
of north Bihar) declined and rule of one King or the monarch became common.
(2) The Kings or groups of Kshatriyas,
the chiefs of which called themselves kings (rajas), ruled over Janapadas or Mahajanapadas which
had various type of settlements such as villages,
market towns, towns and cities in them. The appearance of urban centres, after
a long gap of time, meant the emergence of different social groups pursuing
different occupations because the existence of cities implies the existence of
different sections of population who are not primarily engaged in production of
food but in other activities. This also meant that people pursuing different
occupations and living in one place led to the distinction between urban and
rural areas.
(3) The rulers and some other social groups (for
example, the Brahmanas) were not engaged in
production of food; so they had to receive a share of the produce. Thus emerged the system of taxation or appropriation of a part of
the produce of others.
(4) The nature of exchange of goods also changed
in this period and it became complex. So the mediation of goods between
individuals and between different regions led to the emergence of professional
middlemen and merchants. The rich merchants (setthis)
were
regarded
as important in society as big landholders. This period also saw the
appearance, for the first time in India, of meta coins
which were used extensively for exchange. It also saw the appearance of a
regular trade network connecting different cities and towns.
(5) The fact is that the majority of people in
this society lived in villages and Were engaged in
producing food for themselves and for others. This required a social order in
which: relations between different social groups were defined. The Chaturvarna schemeor the scheme dividing
society into four varnas which appeared in the later
Vedic phase was the theoretical frame in which society w-as organized. Of
course, the position of all social groups, for example that of dasas or the slaves, was not defined in the scheme. But
generally, by laying down the privileges, obligations and duties of all varnas (in relation to one another) and by making varna a matter of heridity, it made possible for different social groups,
with different customs, norms and hereditary pursuits, to accept the notion of varna division. Even radical thinkers like the Buddha who
opposed the primacy of Brahmanas and the Brahmanical rituals did not depart from the varna based division of society.
(6) A new type of society also meant that people
living in it had new questions about life, sought meanings in life and had new
aspirations. For example, a group of merchants living
in a city with artisans and Brahmanas or even a slave
living in a village with his master and other independent cultivators, would
not have been able to get their questions answered by a tribal assembly where
members belonged to the same society. So the new complex society which had been
emerging from the later Vedic phase in the Ganga
Valley raised many questions about the position of various social groups in
society and about life in general. This is reflected in the Upanishads, in the
teachings of the Buddha and Mahavira, and in various
other types of ideas of the period which sought answers to life's problems.
These Ideas which were primarily put forward by individuals who did not belong
to the group of Brahmanas and who opposed elaborate
Vedic rituals and the primacy of the Brahmanas in
society drew support from different groups of the new society, and Buddhism and
Jainism in particular spread rapidly in the centuries which
followed.
Acknowledgment: We are thankful to Eklavya, Hoshangabad (MP.) for
permitting us to use some of their illustrations.
Book 5: Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.
In Block-V you have read of the
history of India of the period between the 6th arid the 4th century B. C. and
have become familiar with the important changes which were taking place in this
period. You have seen that one of the important developments of this period was
the rise of some big Janapadas. These Mahajanapadas were mostly located in the Ganga valley, although some were located in other regions
as well. Ruled by Kings or rulers of gana-samghas,
these Mahajanapadas came to produce varieties of
resources through agriculture, pastoralism, trade and
production of various crafts, and in addition to agricultural settlements,
these Mahajanapadas came to have commercial centres
and also big cities in them. In the period between the 6th century B.C. and the
4th century B.C. we find the important Mahajanapadas
fighting one another for political supremacy. In this Block we shall discuss
how Magadha, one of the Mahajanapadas, gradually
built an empire. Magadha grew into an empire by conquering and including in it other territories. When its territory was largest in the
period of the Maurya King Asoka, it extended from
Afghanistan in the northwest to Maharashtra ,
Karnataka and Andhra in the Deccan in the south and from Gujarat in the west to
north and southwest Bengal in the east (see map)
The Magadhan empire, in its heyday therefore, included three major
geographical regions:
1) the northwest
2) the Ganga valley and adjacent areas to the north of the Vindhyas and
3) the Deccan.
In the region of the northwest extending from
Afghanistan to Punjab, there existed a large number of autonomous territories
very much like gana-samghas. Some of them like the Malloi, Oxydrakoi, Siboi, Gandaris, Taxila, country of Porus are
mentioned not only by the chroniclers of Alexander's campaigns; their existence
is indicated by some old Persian or Iranian
inscriptions and the famous grammarian Panini of Taxila
also refer to them. In fact, from the sixth century B.C. the Achaemenid empire of Persia under rulers like Cyrus Darius r, Xerxes, Artaxerxes and Darius Ill, expanded into this region, and
the 'contact proved to be culturally significant, because many elements of Achaemenid Imperial Culture came to be used by the Magadhan empire which originated in the Ganga
valley, Towards the close of the 4th century B.C.) he
mighty Persian empire was crushed by the expanding army of Alexander of
Macedonia of north Greece. Alexander- advanced to the Panjab
plains and fought valiant battles with territories of this region headed by
their warriors. Alexander died without forging his conquered territories into
an empire but his generals held his possessions in "West Asia and there
emerged the Seleucid state in the region.
The contact with the
Persians and the Greeks, op up north western part of the subcontinent to
Persians and Greek cultural influences and to Persian and Greek population,
using their own languages and scripts. It also resulted in
lively commercial enterprise, and regions' like Bactria in the Oxus valley in
north Afghanistan and Taxila near Islamabad in
Pakistan became cultural and commercial centres of great importance. It is no
wonder then after Magadha had consolidated its position in the Ganga Valley by conquering all the Mahajanapadas of the region, it tried and succeeded in conquering the northwest also
from the successors of Alexander. The rulers of Magadha also gradually expanded
into the Deccan but we do not have the details of this history. However, the
facts that Mauryan emperor Asoka's edicts are found
right from Maharashtra across the Deccan to Andhra and that the territories of
the extreme south were Ashoka's friendly neighbours
leave no doubt that Magadhan authority extended to
Deccan.
The regions which were included within this
vast Magadhan empire were
very much different from one another geographically and culturally. How did the
Magadhan rulers rule over this vast empire
effectively? Till recently it was believed by historians that Magadhan rulers, particularly Mauryan
rulers, maintained very rigid and direct control over all parts
of the empire through different types of officials and through a large standing
army. This view is now partially questioned and it is doubted whether in such
remote past it was possible to govern different parts of the empire so
directly. The empire of course maintained a large standing army, as mentioned
repeatedly in Greek accounts, and there were different centres in the empire,
like Taxila in the northwest, Ujjayini
in Malwa and Suvarnagiri in
the Deccan and Tosali in Orissa through which
supervisory control was exercised over different parts of the empire. There is
also evidence that in-the cities, a very efficient system of administration,
looked after by different committees, prevailed and that in the period of the Mauryas, the state exercised significant control in all
areas of economic activities.
But perhaps much more important than introducing
efficient administrative measures was the question: how would the message of
the emperor reach different sections of people in the vast
empire? One way of doing this was to project the power and goodwill of the
emperor by undertaking public works arid building impressive monuments. Like
other ancient perors, the Magadhan
emperors and particularly the Mauryas too did this by
constructing canals and water reservoirs and digging wells, building roads,
planting trees and organising medical treatment for men and animals. They also
created splendid specimens of imperial art in the form of pillars and palaces
with pillared halls. But the Mauryan emperor Asoka
adopted a more effective and direct method of reaching across to the subjects (praja) of his empire, During his period we find a number of
edicts on rocks, stone slabs and pillars which he placed in strategic parts of the empire
so that he could communicate directly with his subjects through 'them, In many
cases the edicts open with:
"Thus says Priyadarsi
King, beloved of the gods".
Asoka borrowed the concept from his Achaemenid precedessors of Persia
but he did not use his edicts for projecting his greatness as a conqueror and
administrator but a a
propagator of dhamma. In fact,
what was unique about Magadhan empire in the period of
Asoka was that he saw dhamma, in addition to
administrative efficiency, as some thing which could'
bind the people of the vast empire together. He abandoned territorial conquest
for conquest by dhamma, he gave up tours of pleasure
for dhamma tours and he enjoined his subjects to
follow such simple tenets of dhamma as non-violence,
respect for others, and understanding of others' faiths and beliefs. A oka's vision of his empire was thus unique; like other
ancient emperors he too depended on his army and his large
administrative machinery to govern it, but he realised the stability of such a heterogenous empire could be ensured only by establishing
harmonious relations between different individuals, between different
communities and between different faiths.
The Magadhan empire, however, did not last long and by about the
beginning of the second Century B.C. it had declined. Only minor powers like
the Sungas and Kanvas held
Magadha and some other areas for some time but they did not rule over as an
empire. There are various opinions as to why the Magadhan
empire declined; you will read about them in Unit 22
of this Block. But though this .first Indian empire declined, it had great
impact on regions it once controlled, Magadhan empire made possible movement of people, merchants and
religious leaders to different parts of the subcontinent on a significant
scale. Thus new elements of culture such as the idea of the state, urban life,
new religious thought, writing, coinage and so on travelled to different
corners of India and provided impetus for cultural change. The rulers of
Magadha also actively encouraged contacts with countries outside both in the
south and in the north west and these contacts came to be of great significance
in the, subsequent period. You will read about them in Block-VI.
Acknowledgement: We are thankful to the
Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi for permitting us to use their
photographs.
Book 6: India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
From Block. V, you have come to learn
that the Magadhan empire,
although it declined after the fall of the Mauryas in
the beginning of the second century B.C., had a profound impact on the history
of post-Mauryan India. In other words, although the
political power of one region or one ruling family over the Indian
sub-continent came to an end, it did not mean decline or set
back for the society as a whole. On the other hand, the empire had
initiated processes of change in many regions, and these processes of change
reached a level of maturity in the post-Maurya
period. In Blocks VI and VII you shall be reading mainly about these changes.
Block VI has two Units (23 and 24) which deal specifically with-north India.
Two other Units (25 and 26) have a wider coverage; they tell us in general
terms about certain aspects of culture in post-Mauryan
India. While Unit 25 deals with major' changes in religion, Unit 26 discusses
how art activities became widespread throughout India and what we may learn
from the actual material which is available from the important centres of art
of
this period.
The political history of north India, which is
discussed in Unit 23, presents some new features. North western India had
always been a region which had active contact with Iran, Afghanistan and
Central Asia. In the post-Mauryan period, population
movements across Central Asia had direct impact on the political situation in
north and north west India, particularly to the west
of upper Ganga and Yamuna. The Greeks of Bactria
(north Afghanistan) expanded and moved down across the Hindu Kush. Their rule
extended to the Panjab. The Greeks or the Yavanas (as they were known in India) were followed by the
'Scythians (Sakas) and the Parthians
(Pahlavas) and the Kushanas,
a branch of the Yuch-Chi of course, the movements did
not stop here and in later periods too the movements
of people across the northwest frontier continued.
It would, however, be wrong to think that north
and northwest India was under foreign domination in this period. The
distinction between foreign and Indian was not clear in that period, and the Yavanas, Sakas, etc. in any case
became part of the population of the Indian sub-continent. Further, there were
different areas in the Panjab, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh where small local states were being ruled either by minor royal
families or by members of dominant clans like the Audumbaras,
Yaudheyas, Malavas
and so on. Under the Sakas and
the Kushanas, the Ksbatrapas, the Mabadandanayakas and other officials also exercised con iderable local authority. The political map of north India
in the post-Maurya period was therefore vastly
different from the political map of Mauryan India.
The simultaneous existence of small powers-
along with some major powers does not mean that contacts between different
regions came to an end. In fact, the communications between different regions
for trade and other purposes, which had begun earlier, became much more intense
during this period. This is the main theme which is dealt with in Unit 24.
Although the unit deals with north India, it does not mean that communication was
limited within north India or to trade alone. The Indian sub-continent as a
whole had links in this period with central Asia, parts of western Asia, the
Mediterranean world including north Egypt, and to some extent with Southeast
Asia and with China through Central Asia and Southeast Asia. These links were
not limited to importing and exporting goods for trade only; they also meant
movements of people and movements of ideas with people. Within India all these
activities had profound impact on society. For example, this is the period in
which the towns and cities, which had originated much earlier, reached their
most prosperous phase. Another evidence of this kind is that the largest
quantity of coins was minted in this period; even clans like the Audumbaras and the Yaudheyas, who
were earlier known only as warriors, were minting coins, sometimes in imitation
of Greek and Kushana coins.
The changes within the Indian society are most
evident in religion (Unit 25) and art (Unit 26). In religion, even Buddhism and
Jainism, which originally began as protests against orthodox Brahmanical ideas and religious practices, changed
substantially and there were divisions within both Buddhist and Jaina orders. One of the chief features which came to
characterize all religions, is that worship of a deity
in the shape of an .image or an idol became a dominant religious practice. Both Buddha 'and the Jaina Tirthankaras became deities and no longer remained as
religious teachers only. in all religions again
many earlier local beliefs. local cults. local gods and symbols were assimilated. In Brahmanical religion the trend was towards formation of
groups around major deities. Thus Vishnu and Siva emerged as two major deities
by assimilating or associating other deities with them. One example is
that Uma, the Sakti of
Siva. herself symbolised combination of many goddesses
both Indian and non-Indian.
With changes in
Buddhism, Jainism and also in the character of Brahmanic
8l religion. various groups in society
are seen extending their patronage to one religion or the other. This is
reflected also in the activities of the period. Evidence of art activities is
found in the religious centres - at the Stupas, Viharas, early temples and so on. Buddhism had the
largest support in this period, and it travelled to countries outside India
along with merchants and monks. Influence of art of other regions like Central
Asia and Hellenistic world is seen on Indian art. This was a result of regular
contact with these regions and of support to Buddhism, but this influence is
seen not only in Buddhist art bur on the art activities of the period in
general. In any case, creations of art of a high order did not depend on
support from the royalty or the state alone; they drew support from a wide social
base.
Book 7: State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
In Block 6 you read about different aspects of
political, economic and cultural change that took place in north India in the post
- Mauryan period (200 B. C. - 300 A. D.). In the five
units of this Block you will be reading about the changes that peninsular
India, which includes both the Deccan and the extreme south, was experiencing
in this period.
Units 27 and 28 deal
with the problem of the emergence of the institution of the State in the Deccan
and the South. You have read in Blocks IV and V how the beginnings
of territorial states in north India were represented first by the sixteen Mahajanpadas which originated in the 6th-5th Centuries B.C.
and how over the next few centuries Magadha built a formidable state covering
almost the entire Indian subcontinent. In peninsular India, the first rulers
were local kings and some important families, like those of the Maharathis, who started minting their own coins from about
the second century B.C. but the first organized state in the Deccan was built
by the Satavahanas . (see Unit 27). In the far south,
in the area represented by present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala, an identical
change did not take place in this period. In different regions of the south,
power was wielded by chiefs who are known to us from poems written in their
praise by bards. Among them, the chiefs of the Cholas, the Pandyas
and the Cheras were like kings who commanded immense
agricultural resources and profits from trade. In fact, the society of Tamilaham or the far south was going through a phase of
many changes and cannot at all be considered a society with a single structure.
There were many major differences between different sub-regions of the far
south. These differences were expressed, in the early Tamil poems, in the
different styles of life followed in different sub-regions in Tamilham, the name by which the far south was known. The
different sub-regions like hilly areas, river-valleys, coastal areas, grassland
areas were viewed as representing different tinais (
explained as eco-zones in unit 28) in the early Tamil poem collections of which
are known as Sangam. These poems, in addition to
other literary references and archaeology, suggested that early south Indian
society was dominated by the major chiefdoms of the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras and many
other chiefs of varying importance. The big chiefs controlled the river valleys
where agrarian settlements were expanding (see Unit 29) and also the coastal
ports which were becoming prosperous because of lucrative trade. Besides, they
derived considerable resources from tribute, plunder and other means, although
a regular system of taxation does not seem to have been known. They as well
chiefs of other categories, extended patronage to bards and other dependents
and the Brahmanas also had started receiving
considerable patronage and importance in early Tamil society. Thus, although a
full-fledged state may not have emerged, there were sufficient indications of
contact with Brahmanical ideology and society of the
north and of major social inequalities existing within the society of early Tamilaharn.
Apart from differences in political
organization, there were other differences between the society of the Deccan
and the society of the far south in this period. It was not only Brahamanism which had taken a firm hold of the society;
more widespread was Buddhism, as is evident from the number of stupas and Budhist viharas (monastic establishments) which came up in the
Deccan during this period. This was made possible by the generous gifts given
to the stupas' and the monks of the viharas not only by kings and officials but also by
merchants, artisans and others. Much of the wealth of the Deccan in this period
was derived from different types of trade, a special feature of which was the
development of commercial contact with the Roman world. This contact affected
both the Deccan and the far south, but judging by the number of towns and
cities in the Deccan of this period, it would appear that the impact of this
trade was greater in this region than in Tamilaham
(see Unit 30).
The final Unit (Unit 31) discusses
important aspects of early Tamil literature and language. As the Vedic texts
are the earliest specimens of the Sanskrit language so are the Tamil poems,
collectively known as the Sangam, and a few short
inscriptions, the earliest specimens of Dravidian languages. The Sangam poems were orally composed much before they were
classified and compiled in the form of collections. They were, also not
concerned directly with religious rites and practices, as the Vedic texts were.
However, for students of history, the texts as well as the Sangam
poems are important sources of information about the societies which produced
them. You have learnt in Block 3 how historians use the evidence of the Vedic
texts to analyze the transition from early Vedic to later Vedic society; the Sangam poems, similarly, help historians analyse the
changes through which society was moving in early Tamilaham
or the far south in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Book 8: Indian Polity : B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.
This Block is going to focus mainly on the
political history of both north India and peninsular India from the beginning
of the fourth century to the eighth century A.D. You h've
read in Blocks 6 and 7 about the political situation in north India and
peninsular India in the post-Mauryan period. You must
have noticed that compared to the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods, the number of ruling families had
increased considerably in the post- Mauryan period.
This means that: (i) more and more areas were
experiencing the emergence of local states; these states which may have been
small were represented mostly by local ruling families, (ii) when large state
structures arose these small local states either' lost their separate existence
obey continued as subordinates within the larger states.
One larger state structure which began to emerge
from the beginning of the fourth century A.D. was that of the Guptas. In Unit 32 you will read about the political and
other aspects of the history of the Gupta period. The Gupta power, at its peak,
extended from Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat in the west to-Bengal in the
east-and from northwest India in the north of Madhya Pradesh in the south. This
however does not mean' that this entire area was directly ruled by the central
authority; there were areas like- Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which the Guptas administered through officials appointed by them;
even in far-flung Saurashtra in Gujarat governors
were appointed by Gupta rulers like Skandagupta.
Elsewhere, as in Malwa
regions, the Guptas maintained their suzerainty
through political and matrimonial alliances with various autonomous powers: In
Unit 33 you will read about the administrative, economic and social aspects of
the Gupta period. this Unit will attempt- to
familiarize you with some of the significant changes which. were
taking place in society and which greatly changed the character of the society
in the post-Gupta period. You will read more about these changes in Block 9 but
Units 34 and 35 of this Block introduce to you what major changes were taking
place in the political structure of the country.
In Unit 34 you will notice that in the
post-Gupta period, a number of new political powers emerged in different parts
of north India. This may give the impression that political authority was-very
fragmented and that this was the result of the weakening of the central
authority. But when you look at it from a different angle you will realize that
formation of new political powers was a continuous process in early India
history. Further, the political powers like 'the Palas
of Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and others who
emerged in Rajasthan or the kingdom of Kashmir did not last for only one
generation as did the large state structure of Harsha.
They were more stable, they had their bases in the regions in which they
emerged and in many cases they marked the beginning of the political identity
of a region or a sub-region. In Unit 35 you will be reading about the kingdoms
which emerged in-peninsular India in the post-Satavahana
period. Here too you will notice that the minor ruling families became gradually
subordinates to the powers of the Pallavas of coastal
Tamilnadu and the Chalukyas
of Badami in north Karnataka, The basis of Pallava and Chalukya powerwere important political sub-regions, respectively in Tamilnadu and' Karnataka.
Book 9: Transition to Early Medieval India
In Block 8 you have already read that certain
important changes had started taking shape in the Gupta period, and in the four
Units of this Block you will read how these changes, both in the Gupta and in
the post-Gupta periods, may together be taken to mark the beginning of a new
period in Indian history. Historians have come to think that the ancient phase
of Indian history came to an end now and the period, approximately between the
sixth century and the eighth century, may be considered to mark the beginning
of the early medieval phase. You will notice that the change from one phase of
history to another was not simply a matter of change from one ruling family to
another or even a change from an imperial power like the Guptas
to the rise of comparatively insignificant local states. This was a change
which gave new shape to various spheres of life: political, economic, social,
religious and so on. This Block is, therefore, concerned with such questions as
you are expected to ask:
What were the major changes which affected
different spheres of life?
Why should these changes be taken to mark the
beginning of a new phase of history ?
Why did these changes take place?
You may have noticed that the political map of the
Gupta period was vastly different from the political map of the Maurya period. It is not only that the Guptas
ruled over an empire which was less extensive than the empire of the Mauryas. It is that the regions outside the Gupta empire as
well inside the Gupta empire had numerous ruling
families of various categories. Although, we know from the Allahabad prasasti or the eulogy of Samudra
Gupta that many rulers were subjugated by Samudragupta,
milny of them continued in remote areas, and one
significant reference found in the Gupta inscription is to "eighteen atavi - rajyas" or to
forest kingdoms. You know that Asoka Maurya referred
of the forest people of his empire in the context of the problems they were
creating for him; the appearance of rajyas Of kingdoms in forest regions and other are asin Gupta period marked a significant change in the
political structure and in political relations from the Gupta period onward.
The grants of lands by kings may also have created such strata of landholders
who also wielded political power in their areas. So, many new developments
continued to result in a new kind of polity in which it was not only the King
who was the symbol of political authority. Political authority in the new set up, was shared with rulers of various kinds, such as the samantas, mahasamantas, mandalesvaras, mahamandalesvaras, mandalikas, rautas, ranakas and so on.
Political authority had its base in the control
of land, and therefore the emergence of different types of authorities,
political as well as those associated with political, also meant major changes
in agrarian and revenue systems. In areas where land was given to brahmanas, temples and other beneficiaries; the recipients
of grants started exercising various types of authority on cultivators and
other sections of rural people. The decline of trade and of urban settlements
also put considerable' strain on the economy which was essentially dependent on
resources from land. The presence on resources from land led to imposition by
ruling authorities and by those who were closely associated with them, of many,
taxes and levies on cultivators. Historians have shown that the number of dues
which the peasants had to pay in post-Gupta times was much more than in earlier
periods. It would however be wrong to think that the peasants were, as an
entire community reduced to complex servitude. Here too the situation was
complex. There were different categories of cultivators from landless to rich
ones and dominant peasant or tribal groups could aspire for political power as
well. At least this is what happened in tribal pockets where many new ruling
families emerged from within the localities.
Changes within the
society in which the four varnas were known as well
as across different regions are best illustrated by the nature of the caste
system of the early medieval period. New castes, like the Kayastha caste emerged from the Gupta period onward: many
older communities and professions developed characteristics of castes and
sub-castes. In many regions, existing social groups were put in one or two
broad categories and were contrasted. with brahmanas as another broad category. Thus, there appeared
the broad division of Brahmana and Sudra,
although within each division there were numerous sub-divisions.
Contents
|
Block 1 Environment And Early Patterns of Adaptation |
|
UNIT 1 |
India: Physical Features |
7 |
UNIT 2 |
Regions in Indian History: Formation and Characteristics |
21 |
UNIT 3 |
Hunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Perspective |
33 |
UNIT 4 |
Origins of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals |
43 |
|
Block 2 Harappan Civilization |
|
UNIT 5 |
Antecedents,
Chronology and Geographical Spread |
5 |
UNIT 6 |
Material
Characteristics |
16 |
UNIT 7 |
Nature of
Contacts |
29 |
UNIT 8 |
Society and
Religion |
39 |
UNIT 9 |
Diffusion and
Decline |
49 |
|
Block 3 Evolution of Early Indian Society: 2000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. |
|
UNIT 10 |
Chalcolithic and-Early Iron
Age-I |
5 |
UNIT 11 |
Chalcolithic and Early Iron
Age-II |
30 |
UNIT 12 |
The Early Vedic Society |
42 |
UNIT 13 |
Changes in The Later Vedic Phase |
53 |
|
Block 4 India: 6TH to 4TH Century B.C. |
|
UNIT 14 |
Janapadas and the Malllajanapadas |
5 |
UNIT 15 |
Rise of Urban Centres |
19 |
UNIT 16 |
Society and Economy |
30 |
UNIT 17 |
Buddhism, Jainism and Other Religious Ideas |
41 |
|
Block 5 Polity, Society And Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C. |
|
UNIT 18 |
Magadhan Territorial
Expansion |
5 |
UNIT 19 |
Economy of the Mauryan Empire |
20 |
UNIT 20 |
Administrative Organisation and Relationship with Other Powers |
32 |
UNIT 21 |
Asoka's Policy of Dhamma |
46 |
UNIT 22 |
Disintegration of the Empire |
56 |
|
Block 6 India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. |
|
UNIT 23 |
Northern-Western and Northern India |
5 |
UNIT 24 |
Expansion in Network of Trade and Urbanisation |
15 |
UNIT 25 |
Development in Religion |
26 |
UNIT 26 |
Art and Architecture |
35 |
|
Block 7 State And Society In South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. |
|
UNIT 27 |
Early State Formation in Deccan |
5 |
UNIT 28 |
Early State Formation in South India (Tamilaham) |
12 |
UNIT 29 |
Agrarian Settlements and Agrarian Society in Peninsular India |
17 |
UNIT 30 |
Expansion of Trade and Urban Centres |
28 |
UNIT 31 |
Growth of Tamil Language and Literature |
41 |
|
Block 8 Indian Polity: B.C. 300-800 A.D. |
|
UNIT 32 |
Rise and
Growth of Guptas |
5 |
UNIT 33 |
Economy,
Society and Polity: Guptas |
16 |
UNIT 34 |
Post-Gupta
Kingdoms in North India |
25 |
UNIT 35 |
Kingdoms in
the Deccan and the South |
33 |
|
Block 9 Transition to Early Medieval India |
|
UNIT 36 |
Changes in Economy |
5 |
UNIT 37 |
Changes in Society |
15 |
UNIT 38 |
Structure of Polity |
25 |
UNIT 39 |
Developments in Religion |
30 |
About the Book
Book 1: Environment
and Early Patterns of Adaptation
Book 2: Harappan Civilization
Book 3: Evolution of
Early Indian Society
Book 4: India : 6th to 4th Century B.C.
Book 5:
Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.
Book 6: India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
Book 7:
State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
Book 8:
Indian Polity : B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.
Book 9:
Transition to Early Medieval India
Book 1: Environment and Early Patterns of Adaptation
This block is divided into two parts. The first
two Units introduce to you the major geographical regions of India and
sub-regions within them. They also tell you how the regions evolved in history
owing to interplay of different factors. You know that the Indian sub- continent
is vast in size and its different parts have-different characteristics in terms
of elevation (height) soil, rainfall, drainage
system or the way major rivers and their tributaries flow. An understanding of
these different sets of characteristics of different areas or regions is
necessary because, as you will read later, human activities in the Indian
sub-continent were not uniform in nature, nor were similar activities taking
place simultaneously everywhere. This is particularly true of the period with which
this course is concerned.
At the early stages of social evolution the
shape of history was largely dependent on how human communities were
interacting with their environment, and the nature of this interaction laid the
foundation of how different regions were formed. Unit 2 tells you how some
region took shape comparatively early and also why other regions took time to
assume recognizable shapes, although no region ever remained in complete
isolation from one another. The unit also tells you that despite regional
differences there were common traits in social organization, in religion, in
the ideal of kingship, etc. which came to characterize all regions of the sub-
continent. Thus, there emerged the idea of a common cultural identity which
bound different regions together.
In units 3 and 4 you shall read about the
earliest stages of cultural evolution in the Indian
sub- continent. Unit 3 discusses how human communities lived essentially as
gatherers of food from their environment by adapting themselves to it and by
adapting appropriate techniques for preparing tools for this purpose. Even
though the pace of change in this stage of culture was slow the stages of the
evolution of tools which the human beings made to acquire food and process it,
nevertheless show both changes in the climate and in the natural environment in
which they lived and their capacity to adapt to this change. A major change,
which a renowned archaeologist once called Revolution, came when human
communities began to produce their own food by taking to farming and
domesticating animals. These changes also took a long span of time to take
shape because both involved human intervention in nature: wild plants had to be
domesticated for yielding cereals which could be processed as food and
selection of wild animals had to be made which could be domesticated and put to
varieties of use. Another change which this stage of culture brought about was
that human communities' tended to take to settled life, resulting in the
formation of earliest villages in history.
Although the beginnings of farming and animal
domestication have been generally associated with the Neolithic or New Stone
Age, which is named after the ground stone tools of this phase, this may not be
true for all areas. The earlier view that this change took place originally in
one region (West Asia)and then spread to other areas
is also being modified now. But whatever be the changes in scholarly views the
important point remains that as in other areas, in the Indian sub-continent too,
change-over to food production from hunting and gathering, in different regions
and in different points of time marked a new stage in the evolution of Indian
society.
We would also like to mention here that the
primary sources for knowing about the culture of the period under discussion in
this Block are archaeological sources. These have been unearthed by
Archaeologists through excavations carried out at various places.
Book 2: Harappan Civilization
The excavations carried out in Harappa and Mohenjodaro, in the twenties changed our perception of the
Indian history. The books written prior to these excavations
. would begin with the Vedic society dating back to about the 12th
Century B.C. Cities and Civilizations were believed to have emerged only around
the sixth century B.C. The discovery of the Harappan
Civilization altogether changed this perception. This was because now cities
were discovered which dated back to about 500 B.C. Ever
since its discovery 'the Harappan Civilization has
presented one of the most exciting areas of research in the Indian history.
Discoveries and excavations of new settlements and fresh approaches to research
have enriched our information about the Harappans.
New sites are still being discovered and our present day views about the Harappans might be radically changed by some future
discovery.
In Unit 5 we have discussed the processes by
which scholars established the chronology of the Harappan
Civilization. The excavations in the past twenty years have also. shown that the Harappan cities did
not come up suddenly as was believed earlier. They had a background in the
emergent agricultural communities of the previous period. These agriculturists
had already evolved small towns in the fourth
millennium B.C.
Unit 6 deals with the town planning and social
structure of the Harappans. Since, the Harappan scripthas not been
deciphered the arguments are based on inferences made out of the material
finds.
In Unit 7 we have discussed the trade network of
the Harappans. The Harappan
cities seem to have exploited resources from the surrounding regions. They also
participated in an international trade network linking them with the
Mesopotamians.
Religion and metaphysical speculation have been
important characteristics of ancient civilizations. Religion, dealing with the
ideals and metapliysical speculations, is difficult
to understand without the written word. That is why Unit 8 dealing with the
religion of Harappans is somewhat speculative. It
discusses the finds of various objects which are believed to have some
religious significance. However, the conclusions are largely tentative.
The end of the Harappan
cities has been ad intriguing problem for the scholars. In Unit 9 we discuss various
approaches to understanding the end of the Harappan
civilization. However, this Unit also goes on to evaluate' what survives from
the Harappan Civilization in the subsequent periods
of history.
Book 3: Evolution of Early Indian Society
" In Blocks 1
and 2 you first became familiar with India as a geographically defined country
and also learnt how the earliest human groups in this country adapted
themselves to the varieties of its environment. You have seen that the earliest
stage of cultural evolution is indicated by transition from hunting food
gathering to the stage when humans discovered how to produce food. This change
is revealed by archaeological evidence. Further changes - also revealed by
archaeology - are indicated by the settlements (both urban and non-urban) and
the various remains found in them of the Harappan
culture which, as you have learnt, was the most widespread culture in the
contemporary ancient world. It should however be remembered that processes of
cultural change are neither universal nor uniform. The areas covered by the Harappan culture had within themselves
significant variations. There were other parts of the subcontinent, either in
contact with the Harappan culture or away from its
sphere of influence, where there were no big or small cities In
these areas the cultural patterns were different from the patterns represented
by the Harappan culture. In Block 3 you shall be
reading mainly about the cultural profiles of these regions, although cultural
changes in the Harappan region also will be briefly
touched upon in this block (you will find it useful to read this along with
Block 2).
This Block will show that one should be
cautious in viewing change as a constant movement towards development;
Archaeology and History offers examples of backward movements. You have seen
how the highly urbanized Harappan culture suffered
gradual decline, it this block also you will read how the stable chalcolithic farming communities of western India suffered
decline and had to change their way of life because of environmental deterioration.
Despite such examples, the cultural profiles of different regions of India between the beginning of the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. are important to learn about for man) ( reasons. First this was the period when the nuclear of what emerged as agriculture-based village cultures were being formed in all the major regions of the subcontinent, You know that villages, with their rural population and centred round agricultural production, have been the backbone of Indian civilization through centuries. Except in some areas, the small settlements based on small scale farming of this period came to be transformed into regular rural settlements. of later periods. Initially, the cultures of the small farming settlements were chalcolithic, but from the beginning' of the first millennium B.C. iron came to be known to different cultures, for example, the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Upper Ganga Valley as also the culture of the megalith-builders of peninsular India. The impact of this metal on different cultures is yet to be properly assessed but the point Can be forcefully made that all the crucial ingredients of village life, such as' the techniques of cultivation (even of irrigation), production of varieties of major crops cultivated even today and combining farming with rearing domesticated animals were present in some measure or the other in the regional cultures of the subcontinent between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. This widespr.ead cultural pattern, of course, co-existed with other cultural patterns such as pastoralism and we must also remember that despite the emergence of farming communities, hunting and gathering continued as a way of life.
Secondly, you will learn from this Block (and
in greater detail from. Block 4) that among the various reasons discussed, the
pace of historical change in the Ganga Valley became
suddenly fast from the first millennium B.C. onward. By the middle of the first
millennium B.C. concrete examples of these changes ate noticeable
in the presence of large territories or mahajanapadas,
in the-monarchies and republics, in the big cities and in many other forms. Why
these changes first originated in the upper middle Ganga
is a complex question to answer. It was for long believed that the Aryans who,
came from outside India and whose activities may be learnt by studying the
Vedic texts composed by them had brought the civilizing influences With them,
But sustained research by modem historians shows:
a) Even if there were movements of 'Aryans' into the subcontinent, there was no large scale migration; nor was there displacement of local population as a result of conquest."
b) Rigveda, which is the earliest evidence available for the 'Aryans' or the tribes (Janas) of the Vedic texts, reflects a society which is essentially pastoral and not one which had a substantial agrarian base.
c) The area with which the tribes of the Rigveda were associated did not include the Ganga Valley. It was only at
Book 4: India : 6th to 4th
Century B.C.
In this Block we focus on the period extending
approximately from the 6th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. This period is
justifiably regarded as a very significant period of Indian history. We can
understand the significance of the period properly if we understand how the
changes taking place in the earlier periods matured in this phase and also how
this phase further influenced what happened after the fourth century B.C. In
Block 3 you have read how simple cultures based on farming and animal
domestication had emerged in different regions of India approximately from 2000
B.C. They first went through
the phase when copper was used and then at a latter
stage, around 1000 B.C., iron came to be used along with copper and other
materials. We must remember that all these cultures did not appear together in
different parts of India. For example, whereas a prosperous Cha1colithic
village like Dhar in south Rajasthan existed in 1800 RC., in Bengal Cha1colithic villages came up centuries
later. Secondly, even if the use of iron, the most convenient metal for making
implements, came to be known in different areas around 1000 B.C. its function
in society varied from period to period and from region to region. In the Ganga Valley, it seems that initially the most
important use of iron was for making weapons. Only later on, its use spread to
other areas of social life.
The shift to a sedentary society based on
agricultural production as main occupation is indicated also by earliest
available texts collectively known as the Vedic literature. We have seen (Block
3, unit 13) that society in the later Vedic phase was radically different from
the society of the early Vedic phase.
It was in the context of this agrarian situation
that a new type of society emerged in the Ganga
Valley and it was in the period between the 6th century B.C. and the 4th
century B.C. that the beginnings of this new type of society can be dated. This
is why historians place the beginnings of the early historic period of Indian
history in this phase. Let us highlight the main features of this new, early
historical, society (you shall be reading in detail on them in separate units
of this block):
(1) In literature, which refers to this period,
we hear of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas.
Some of these Janapadas are mentioned in later Vedic
sources and lists of Mahajanapadas appear in later,
particularly in Buddhist and Jaina texts. This
signifies that for the first time in Indian history regions with different
types of human settlements came to acquire specific geographical names. This is
how that a region was demarcated from other regions. This was perhaps necessary
because Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
were ruled by kings or a group of rulers and their areas of control and the
communities over which they ruled were different.
The incorporation of Janapadas
by powerful rulers of the Mahajanapadas led to
political conflicts between rulers and, in a later period, to the establishment
of the Magadhan empire (you
will see this in Block 5). This also meant that gradually the power of the ganasamghas (for example, the Licchavis
of north Bihar) declined and rule of one King or the monarch became common.
(2) The Kings or groups of Kshatriyas,
the chiefs of which called themselves kings (rajas), ruled over Janapadas or Mahajanapadas which
had various type of settlements such as villages,
market towns, towns and cities in them. The appearance of urban centres, after
a long gap of time, meant the emergence of different social groups pursuing
different occupations because the existence of cities implies the existence of
different sections of population who are not primarily engaged in production of
food but in other activities. This also meant that people pursuing different
occupations and living in one place led to the distinction between urban and
rural areas.
(3) The rulers and some other social groups (for
example, the Brahmanas) were not engaged in
production of food; so they had to receive a share of the produce. Thus emerged the system of taxation or appropriation of a part of
the produce of others.
(4) The nature of exchange of goods also changed
in this period and it became complex. So the mediation of goods between
individuals and between different regions led to the emergence of professional
middlemen and merchants. The rich merchants (setthis)
were
regarded
as important in society as big landholders. This period also saw the
appearance, for the first time in India, of meta coins
which were used extensively for exchange. It also saw the appearance of a
regular trade network connecting different cities and towns.
(5) The fact is that the majority of people in
this society lived in villages and Were engaged in
producing food for themselves and for others. This required a social order in
which: relations between different social groups were defined. The Chaturvarna schemeor the scheme dividing
society into four varnas which appeared in the later
Vedic phase was the theoretical frame in which society w-as organized. Of
course, the position of all social groups, for example that of dasas or the slaves, was not defined in the scheme. But
generally, by laying down the privileges, obligations and duties of all varnas (in relation to one another) and by making varna a matter of heridity, it made possible for different social groups,
with different customs, norms and hereditary pursuits, to accept the notion of varna division. Even radical thinkers like the Buddha who
opposed the primacy of Brahmanas and the Brahmanical rituals did not depart from the varna based division of society.
(6) A new type of society also meant that people
living in it had new questions about life, sought meanings in life and had new
aspirations. For example, a group of merchants living
in a city with artisans and Brahmanas or even a slave
living in a village with his master and other independent cultivators, would
not have been able to get their questions answered by a tribal assembly where
members belonged to the same society. So the new complex society which had been
emerging from the later Vedic phase in the Ganga
Valley raised many questions about the position of various social groups in
society and about life in general. This is reflected in the Upanishads, in the
teachings of the Buddha and Mahavira, and in various
other types of ideas of the period which sought answers to life's problems.
These Ideas which were primarily put forward by individuals who did not belong
to the group of Brahmanas and who opposed elaborate
Vedic rituals and the primacy of the Brahmanas in
society drew support from different groups of the new society, and Buddhism and
Jainism in particular spread rapidly in the centuries which
followed.
Acknowledgment: We are thankful to Eklavya, Hoshangabad (MP.) for
permitting us to use some of their illustrations.
Book 5: Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.
In Block-V you have read of the
history of India of the period between the 6th arid the 4th century B. C. and
have become familiar with the important changes which were taking place in this
period. You have seen that one of the important developments of this period was
the rise of some big Janapadas. These Mahajanapadas were mostly located in the Ganga valley, although some were located in other regions
as well. Ruled by Kings or rulers of gana-samghas,
these Mahajanapadas came to produce varieties of
resources through agriculture, pastoralism, trade and
production of various crafts, and in addition to agricultural settlements,
these Mahajanapadas came to have commercial centres
and also big cities in them. In the period between the 6th century B.C. and the
4th century B.C. we find the important Mahajanapadas
fighting one another for political supremacy. In this Block we shall discuss
how Magadha, one of the Mahajanapadas, gradually
built an empire. Magadha grew into an empire by conquering and including in it other territories. When its territory was largest in the
period of the Maurya King Asoka, it extended from
Afghanistan in the northwest to Maharashtra ,
Karnataka and Andhra in the Deccan in the south and from Gujarat in the west to
north and southwest Bengal in the east (see map)
The Magadhan empire, in its heyday therefore, included three major
geographical regions:
1) the northwest
2) the Ganga valley and adjacent areas to the north of the Vindhyas and
3) the Deccan.
In the region of the northwest extending from
Afghanistan to Punjab, there existed a large number of autonomous territories
very much like gana-samghas. Some of them like the Malloi, Oxydrakoi, Siboi, Gandaris, Taxila, country of Porus are
mentioned not only by the chroniclers of Alexander's campaigns; their existence
is indicated by some old Persian or Iranian
inscriptions and the famous grammarian Panini of Taxila
also refer to them. In fact, from the sixth century B.C. the Achaemenid empire of Persia under rulers like Cyrus Darius r, Xerxes, Artaxerxes and Darius Ill, expanded into this region, and
the 'contact proved to be culturally significant, because many elements of Achaemenid Imperial Culture came to be used by the Magadhan empire which originated in the Ganga
valley, Towards the close of the 4th century B.C.) he
mighty Persian empire was crushed by the expanding army of Alexander of
Macedonia of north Greece. Alexander- advanced to the Panjab
plains and fought valiant battles with territories of this region headed by
their warriors. Alexander died without forging his conquered territories into
an empire but his generals held his possessions in "West Asia and there
emerged the Seleucid state in the region.
The contact with the
Persians and the Greeks, op up north western part of the subcontinent to
Persians and Greek cultural influences and to Persian and Greek population,
using their own languages and scripts. It also resulted in
lively commercial enterprise, and regions' like Bactria in the Oxus valley in
north Afghanistan and Taxila near Islamabad in
Pakistan became cultural and commercial centres of great importance. It is no
wonder then after Magadha had consolidated its position in the Ganga Valley by conquering all the Mahajanapadas of the region, it tried and succeeded in conquering the northwest also
from the successors of Alexander. The rulers of Magadha also gradually expanded
into the Deccan but we do not have the details of this history. However, the
facts that Mauryan emperor Asoka's edicts are found
right from Maharashtra across the Deccan to Andhra and that the territories of
the extreme south were Ashoka's friendly neighbours
leave no doubt that Magadhan authority extended to
Deccan.
The regions which were included within this
vast Magadhan empire were
very much different from one another geographically and culturally. How did the
Magadhan rulers rule over this vast empire
effectively? Till recently it was believed by historians that Magadhan rulers, particularly Mauryan
rulers, maintained very rigid and direct control over all parts
of the empire through different types of officials and through a large standing
army. This view is now partially questioned and it is doubted whether in such
remote past it was possible to govern different parts of the empire so
directly. The empire of course maintained a large standing army, as mentioned
repeatedly in Greek accounts, and there were different centres in the empire,
like Taxila in the northwest, Ujjayini
in Malwa and Suvarnagiri in
the Deccan and Tosali in Orissa through which
supervisory control was exercised over different parts of the empire. There is
also evidence that in-the cities, a very efficient system of administration,
looked after by different committees, prevailed and that in the period of the Mauryas, the state exercised significant control in all
areas of economic activities.
But perhaps much more important than introducing
efficient administrative measures was the question: how would the message of
the emperor reach different sections of people in the vast
empire? One way of doing this was to project the power and goodwill of the
emperor by undertaking public works arid building impressive monuments. Like
other ancient perors, the Magadhan
emperors and particularly the Mauryas too did this by
constructing canals and water reservoirs and digging wells, building roads,
planting trees and organising medical treatment for men and animals. They also
created splendid specimens of imperial art in the form of pillars and palaces
with pillared halls. But the Mauryan emperor Asoka
adopted a more effective and direct method of reaching across to the subjects (praja) of his empire, During his period we find a number of
edicts on rocks, stone slabs and pillars which he placed in strategic parts of the empire
so that he could communicate directly with his subjects through 'them, In many
cases the edicts open with:
"Thus says Priyadarsi
King, beloved of the gods".
Asoka borrowed the concept from his Achaemenid precedessors of Persia
but he did not use his edicts for projecting his greatness as a conqueror and
administrator but a a
propagator of dhamma. In fact,
what was unique about Magadhan empire in the period of
Asoka was that he saw dhamma, in addition to
administrative efficiency, as some thing which could'
bind the people of the vast empire together. He abandoned territorial conquest
for conquest by dhamma, he gave up tours of pleasure
for dhamma tours and he enjoined his subjects to
follow such simple tenets of dhamma as non-violence,
respect for others, and understanding of others' faiths and beliefs. A oka's vision of his empire was thus unique; like other
ancient emperors he too depended on his army and his large
administrative machinery to govern it, but he realised the stability of such a heterogenous empire could be ensured only by establishing
harmonious relations between different individuals, between different
communities and between different faiths.
The Magadhan empire, however, did not last long and by about the
beginning of the second Century B.C. it had declined. Only minor powers like
the Sungas and Kanvas held
Magadha and some other areas for some time but they did not rule over as an
empire. There are various opinions as to why the Magadhan
empire declined; you will read about them in Unit 22
of this Block. But though this .first Indian empire declined, it had great
impact on regions it once controlled, Magadhan empire made possible movement of people, merchants and
religious leaders to different parts of the subcontinent on a significant
scale. Thus new elements of culture such as the idea of the state, urban life,
new religious thought, writing, coinage and so on travelled to different
corners of India and provided impetus for cultural change. The rulers of
Magadha also actively encouraged contacts with countries outside both in the
south and in the north west and these contacts came to be of great significance
in the, subsequent period. You will read about them in Block-VI.
Acknowledgement: We are thankful to the
Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi for permitting us to use their
photographs.
Book 6: India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
From Block. V, you have come to learn
that the Magadhan empire,
although it declined after the fall of the Mauryas in
the beginning of the second century B.C., had a profound impact on the history
of post-Mauryan India. In other words, although the
political power of one region or one ruling family over the Indian
sub-continent came to an end, it did not mean decline or set
back for the society as a whole. On the other hand, the empire had
initiated processes of change in many regions, and these processes of change
reached a level of maturity in the post-Maurya
period. In Blocks VI and VII you shall be reading mainly about these changes.
Block VI has two Units (23 and 24) which deal specifically with-north India.
Two other Units (25 and 26) have a wider coverage; they tell us in general
terms about certain aspects of culture in post-Mauryan
India. While Unit 25 deals with major' changes in religion, Unit 26 discusses
how art activities became widespread throughout India and what we may learn
from the actual material which is available from the important centres of art
of
this period.
The political history of north India, which is
discussed in Unit 23, presents some new features. North western India had
always been a region which had active contact with Iran, Afghanistan and
Central Asia. In the post-Mauryan period, population
movements across Central Asia had direct impact on the political situation in
north and north west India, particularly to the west
of upper Ganga and Yamuna. The Greeks of Bactria
(north Afghanistan) expanded and moved down across the Hindu Kush. Their rule
extended to the Panjab. The Greeks or the Yavanas (as they were known in India) were followed by the
'Scythians (Sakas) and the Parthians
(Pahlavas) and the Kushanas,
a branch of the Yuch-Chi of course, the movements did
not stop here and in later periods too the movements
of people across the northwest frontier continued.
It would, however, be wrong to think that north
and northwest India was under foreign domination in this period. The
distinction between foreign and Indian was not clear in that period, and the Yavanas, Sakas, etc. in any case
became part of the population of the Indian sub-continent. Further, there were
different areas in the Panjab, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh where small local states were being ruled either by minor royal
families or by members of dominant clans like the Audumbaras,
Yaudheyas, Malavas
and so on. Under the Sakas and
the Kushanas, the Ksbatrapas, the Mabadandanayakas and other officials also exercised con iderable local authority. The political map of north India
in the post-Maurya period was therefore vastly
different from the political map of Mauryan India.
The simultaneous existence of small powers-
along with some major powers does not mean that contacts between different
regions came to an end. In fact, the communications between different regions
for trade and other purposes, which had begun earlier, became much more intense
during this period. This is the main theme which is dealt with in Unit 24.
Although the unit deals with north India, it does not mean that communication was
limited within north India or to trade alone. The Indian sub-continent as a
whole had links in this period with central Asia, parts of western Asia, the
Mediterranean world including north Egypt, and to some extent with Southeast
Asia and with China through Central Asia and Southeast Asia. These links were
not limited to importing and exporting goods for trade only; they also meant
movements of people and movements of ideas with people. Within India all these
activities had profound impact on society. For example, this is the period in
which the towns and cities, which had originated much earlier, reached their
most prosperous phase. Another evidence of this kind is that the largest
quantity of coins was minted in this period; even clans like the Audumbaras and the Yaudheyas, who
were earlier known only as warriors, were minting coins, sometimes in imitation
of Greek and Kushana coins.
The changes within the Indian society are most
evident in religion (Unit 25) and art (Unit 26). In religion, even Buddhism and
Jainism, which originally began as protests against orthodox Brahmanical ideas and religious practices, changed
substantially and there were divisions within both Buddhist and Jaina orders. One of the chief features which came to
characterize all religions, is that worship of a deity
in the shape of an .image or an idol became a dominant religious practice. Both Buddha 'and the Jaina Tirthankaras became deities and no longer remained as
religious teachers only. in all religions again
many earlier local beliefs. local cults. local gods and symbols were assimilated. In Brahmanical religion the trend was towards formation of
groups around major deities. Thus Vishnu and Siva emerged as two major deities
by assimilating or associating other deities with them. One example is
that Uma, the Sakti of
Siva. herself symbolised combination of many goddesses
both Indian and non-Indian.
With changes in
Buddhism, Jainism and also in the character of Brahmanic
8l religion. various groups in society
are seen extending their patronage to one religion or the other. This is
reflected also in the activities of the period. Evidence of art activities is
found in the religious centres - at the Stupas, Viharas, early temples and so on. Buddhism had the
largest support in this period, and it travelled to countries outside India
along with merchants and monks. Influence of art of other regions like Central
Asia and Hellenistic world is seen on Indian art. This was a result of regular
contact with these regions and of support to Buddhism, but this influence is
seen not only in Buddhist art bur on the art activities of the period in
general. In any case, creations of art of a high order did not depend on
support from the royalty or the state alone; they drew support from a wide social
base.
Book 7: State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.
In Block 6 you read about different aspects of
political, economic and cultural change that took place in north India in the post
- Mauryan period (200 B. C. - 300 A. D.). In the five
units of this Block you will be reading about the changes that peninsular
India, which includes both the Deccan and the extreme south, was experiencing
in this period.
Units 27 and 28 deal
with the problem of the emergence of the institution of the State in the Deccan
and the South. You have read in Blocks IV and V how the beginnings
of territorial states in north India were represented first by the sixteen Mahajanpadas which originated in the 6th-5th Centuries B.C.
and how over the next few centuries Magadha built a formidable state covering
almost the entire Indian subcontinent. In peninsular India, the first rulers
were local kings and some important families, like those of the Maharathis, who started minting their own coins from about
the second century B.C. but the first organized state in the Deccan was built
by the Satavahanas . (see Unit 27). In the far south,
in the area represented by present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala, an identical
change did not take place in this period. In different regions of the south,
power was wielded by chiefs who are known to us from poems written in their
praise by bards. Among them, the chiefs of the Cholas, the Pandyas
and the Cheras were like kings who commanded immense
agricultural resources and profits from trade. In fact, the society of Tamilaham or the far south was going through a phase of
many changes and cannot at all be considered a society with a single structure.
There were many major differences between different sub-regions of the far
south. These differences were expressed, in the early Tamil poems, in the
different styles of life followed in different sub-regions in Tamilham, the name by which the far south was known. The
different sub-regions like hilly areas, river-valleys, coastal areas, grassland
areas were viewed as representing different tinais (
explained as eco-zones in unit 28) in the early Tamil poem collections of which
are known as Sangam. These poems, in addition to
other literary references and archaeology, suggested that early south Indian
society was dominated by the major chiefdoms of the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras and many
other chiefs of varying importance. The big chiefs controlled the river valleys
where agrarian settlements were expanding (see Unit 29) and also the coastal
ports which were becoming prosperous because of lucrative trade. Besides, they
derived considerable resources from tribute, plunder and other means, although
a regular system of taxation does not seem to have been known. They as well
chiefs of other categories, extended patronage to bards and other dependents
and the Brahmanas also had started receiving
considerable patronage and importance in early Tamil society. Thus, although a
full-fledged state may not have emerged, there were sufficient indications of
contact with Brahmanical ideology and society of the
north and of major social inequalities existing within the society of early Tamilaharn.
Apart from differences in political
organization, there were other differences between the society of the Deccan
and the society of the far south in this period. It was not only Brahamanism which had taken a firm hold of the society;
more widespread was Buddhism, as is evident from the number of stupas and Budhist viharas (monastic establishments) which came up in the
Deccan during this period. This was made possible by the generous gifts given
to the stupas' and the monks of the viharas not only by kings and officials but also by
merchants, artisans and others. Much of the wealth of the Deccan in this period
was derived from different types of trade, a special feature of which was the
development of commercial contact with the Roman world. This contact affected
both the Deccan and the far south, but judging by the number of towns and
cities in the Deccan of this period, it would appear that the impact of this
trade was greater in this region than in Tamilaham
(see Unit 30).
The final Unit (Unit 31) discusses
important aspects of early Tamil literature and language. As the Vedic texts
are the earliest specimens of the Sanskrit language so are the Tamil poems,
collectively known as the Sangam, and a few short
inscriptions, the earliest specimens of Dravidian languages. The Sangam poems were orally composed much before they were
classified and compiled in the form of collections. They were, also not
concerned directly with religious rites and practices, as the Vedic texts were.
However, for students of history, the texts as well as the Sangam
poems are important sources of information about the societies which produced
them. You have learnt in Block 3 how historians use the evidence of the Vedic
texts to analyze the transition from early Vedic to later Vedic society; the Sangam poems, similarly, help historians analyse the
changes through which society was moving in early Tamilaham
or the far south in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Book 8: Indian Polity : B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.
This Block is going to focus mainly on the
political history of both north India and peninsular India from the beginning
of the fourth century to the eighth century A.D. You h've
read in Blocks 6 and 7 about the political situation in north India and
peninsular India in the post-Mauryan period. You must
have noticed that compared to the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods, the number of ruling families had
increased considerably in the post- Mauryan period.
This means that: (i) more and more areas were
experiencing the emergence of local states; these states which may have been
small were represented mostly by local ruling families, (ii) when large state
structures arose these small local states either' lost their separate existence
obey continued as subordinates within the larger states.
One larger state structure which began to emerge
from the beginning of the fourth century A.D. was that of the Guptas. In Unit 32 you will read about the political and
other aspects of the history of the Gupta period. The Gupta power, at its peak,
extended from Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat in the west to-Bengal in the
east-and from northwest India in the north of Madhya Pradesh in the south. This
however does not mean' that this entire area was directly ruled by the central
authority; there were areas like- Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which the Guptas administered through officials appointed by them;
even in far-flung Saurashtra in Gujarat governors
were appointed by Gupta rulers like Skandagupta.
Elsewhere, as in Malwa
regions, the Guptas maintained their suzerainty
through political and matrimonial alliances with various autonomous powers: In
Unit 33 you will read about the administrative, economic and social aspects of
the Gupta period. this Unit will attempt- to
familiarize you with some of the significant changes which. were
taking place in society and which greatly changed the character of the society
in the post-Gupta period. You will read more about these changes in Block 9 but
Units 34 and 35 of this Block introduce to you what major changes were taking
place in the political structure of the country.
In Unit 34 you will notice that in the
post-Gupta period, a number of new political powers emerged in different parts
of north India. This may give the impression that political authority was-very
fragmented and that this was the result of the weakening of the central
authority. But when you look at it from a different angle you will realize that
formation of new political powers was a continuous process in early India
history. Further, the political powers like 'the Palas
of Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and others who
emerged in Rajasthan or the kingdom of Kashmir did not last for only one
generation as did the large state structure of Harsha.
They were more stable, they had their bases in the regions in which they
emerged and in many cases they marked the beginning of the political identity
of a region or a sub-region. In Unit 35 you will be reading about the kingdoms
which emerged in-peninsular India in the post-Satavahana
period. Here too you will notice that the minor ruling families became gradually
subordinates to the powers of the Pallavas of coastal
Tamilnadu and the Chalukyas
of Badami in north Karnataka, The basis of Pallava and Chalukya powerwere important political sub-regions, respectively in Tamilnadu and' Karnataka.
Book 9: Transition to Early Medieval India
In Block 8 you have already read that certain
important changes had started taking shape in the Gupta period, and in the four
Units of this Block you will read how these changes, both in the Gupta and in
the post-Gupta periods, may together be taken to mark the beginning of a new
period in Indian history. Historians have come to think that the ancient phase
of Indian history came to an end now and the period, approximately between the
sixth century and the eighth century, may be considered to mark the beginning
of the early medieval phase. You will notice that the change from one phase of
history to another was not simply a matter of change from one ruling family to
another or even a change from an imperial power like the Guptas
to the rise of comparatively insignificant local states. This was a change
which gave new shape to various spheres of life: political, economic, social,
religious and so on. This Block is, therefore, concerned with such questions as
you are expected to ask:
What were the major changes which affected
different spheres of life?
Why should these changes be taken to mark the
beginning of a new phase of history ?
Why did these changes take place?
You may have noticed that the political map of the
Gupta period was vastly different from the political map of the Maurya period. It is not only that the Guptas
ruled over an empire which was less extensive than the empire of the Mauryas. It is that the regions outside the Gupta empire as
well inside the Gupta empire had numerous ruling
families of various categories. Although, we know from the Allahabad prasasti or the eulogy of Samudra
Gupta that many rulers were subjugated by Samudragupta,
milny of them continued in remote areas, and one
significant reference found in the Gupta inscription is to "eighteen atavi - rajyas" or to
forest kingdoms. You know that Asoka Maurya referred
of the forest people of his empire in the context of the problems they were
creating for him; the appearance of rajyas Of kingdoms in forest regions and other are asin Gupta period marked a significant change in the
political structure and in political relations from the Gupta period onward.
The grants of lands by kings may also have created such strata of landholders
who also wielded political power in their areas. So, many new developments
continued to result in a new kind of polity in which it was not only the King
who was the symbol of political authority. Political authority in the new set up, was shared with rulers of various kinds, such as the samantas, mahasamantas, mandalesvaras, mahamandalesvaras, mandalikas, rautas, ranakas and so on.
Political authority had its base in the control
of land, and therefore the emergence of different types of authorities,
political as well as those associated with political, also meant major changes
in agrarian and revenue systems. In areas where land was given to brahmanas, temples and other beneficiaries; the recipients
of grants started exercising various types of authority on cultivators and
other sections of rural people. The decline of trade and of urban settlements
also put considerable' strain on the economy which was essentially dependent on
resources from land. The presence on resources from land led to imposition by
ruling authorities and by those who were closely associated with them, of many,
taxes and levies on cultivators. Historians have shown that the number of dues
which the peasants had to pay in post-Gupta times was much more than in earlier
periods. It would however be wrong to think that the peasants were, as an
entire community reduced to complex servitude. Here too the situation was
complex. There were different categories of cultivators from landless to rich
ones and dominant peasant or tribal groups could aspire for political power as
well. At least this is what happened in tribal pockets where many new ruling
families emerged from within the localities.
Changes within the
society in which the four varnas were known as well
as across different regions are best illustrated by the nature of the caste
system of the early medieval period. New castes, like the Kayastha caste emerged from the Gupta period onward: many
older communities and professions developed characteristics of castes and
sub-castes. In many regions, existing social groups were put in one or two
broad categories and were contrasted. with brahmanas as another broad category. Thus, there appeared
the broad division of Brahmana and Sudra,
although within each division there were numerous sub-divisions.
Contents
|
Block 1 Environment And Early Patterns of Adaptation |
|
UNIT 1 |
India: Physical Features |
7 |
UNIT 2 |
Regions in Indian History: Formation and Characteristics |
21 |
UNIT 3 |
Hunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Perspective |
33 |
UNIT 4 |
Origins of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals |
43 |
|
Block 2 Harappan Civilization |
|
UNIT 5 |
Antecedents,
Chronology and Geographical Spread |
5 |
UNIT 6 |
Material
Characteristics |
16 |
UNIT 7 |
Nature of
Contacts |
29 |
UNIT 8 |
Society and
Religion |
39 |
UNIT 9 |
Diffusion and
Decline |
49 |
|
Block 3 Evolution of Early Indian Society: 2000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. |
|
UNIT 10 |
Chalcolithic and-Early Iron
Age-I |
5 |
UNIT 11 |
Chalcolithic and Early Iron
Age-II |
30 |
UNIT 12 |
The Early Vedic Society |
42 |
UNIT 13 |
Changes in The Later Vedic Phase |
53 |
|
Block 4 India: 6TH to 4TH Century B.C. |
|
UNIT 14 |
Janapadas and the Malllajanapadas |
5 |
UNIT 15 |
Rise of Urban Centres |
19 |
UNIT 16 |
Society and Economy |
30 |
UNIT 17 |
Buddhism, Jainism and Other Religious Ideas |
41 |
|
Block 5 Polity, Society And Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C. |
|
UNIT 18 |
Magadhan Territorial
Expansion |
5 |
UNIT 19 |
Economy of the Mauryan Empire |
20 |
UNIT 20 |
Administrative Organisation and Relationship with Other Powers |
32 |
UNIT 21 |
Asoka's Policy of Dhamma |
46 |
UNIT 22 |
Disintegration of the Empire |
56 |
|
Block 6 India : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. |
|
UNIT 23 |
Northern-Western and Northern India |
5 |
UNIT 24 |
Expansion in Network of Trade and Urbanisation |
15 |
UNIT 25 |
Development in Religion |
26 |
UNIT 26 |
Art and Architecture |
35 |
|
Block 7 State And Society In South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. |
|
UNIT 27 |
Early State Formation in Deccan |
5 |
UNIT 28 |
Early State Formation in South India (Tamilaham) |
12 |
UNIT 29 |
Agrarian Settlements and Agrarian Society in Peninsular India |
17 |
UNIT 30 |
Expansion of Trade and Urban Centres |
28 |
UNIT 31 |
Growth of Tamil Language and Literature |
41 |
|
Block 8 Indian Polity: B.C. 300-800 A.D. |
|
UNIT 32 |
Rise and
Growth of Guptas |
5 |
UNIT 33 |
Economy,
Society and Polity: Guptas |
16 |
UNIT 34 |
Post-Gupta
Kingdoms in North India |
25 |
UNIT 35 |
Kingdoms in
the Deccan and the South |
33 |
|
Block 9 Transition to Early Medieval India |
|
UNIT 36 |
Changes in Economy |
5 |
UNIT 37 |
Changes in Society |
15 |
UNIT 38 |
Structure of Polity |
25 |
UNIT 39 |
Developments in Religion |
30 |