As the title of this study, "The Sanskrit Epics' Representation of Vedic Myths", suggests, my aim is to examine the way in which certain myths which first appear (as far as India is concerned) in the Vedas, and more specifically in the Rgveda, are retold in the Sanskrit Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana and to examine in what way the Epics re-use the mythological material earlier used in the Vedas. Before proceeding any further, I shall first give a brief summary of the nature, contents and dates of the texts mentioned above. T he texts The oldest stratum of Sanskrit literature is called the Veda, a term which (originally at least) was roughly synonymous with mantra or brahman and meant ‘sacred utterance’. The Veda is also called the sruti ‘that which has been. heard’, or the ‘revelation’, and is, according to the later Indian tradition — especially according to the Mimamsa, a school of Vedic exegesis —— eternal and authorless, and was a‘revea1ed’ to the Vedic rsis or seers. The Veda is divided into several layers of texts: first come the Samhitas or ‘collections’. There are four Samhitas: the oldest is the Rgveda Samhita, or the ‘collection of verses’, (dated circa 1500-1000 B.C.E.), composed in ten mandalas or books. Out of these, the tenth mandala is usually considered to be younger than the rest of the collection. The Rgveda consists of hymns attributed to certain families of seers, mainly containing prayers and praise addressed to different gods. In these hymns, the poets frequently mention and describe the mythical deeds of these gods, The Rgveda Samhita is thus of paramount importance for our study. The Samaveda Samhita, or the ‘collection of melodies’, mainly consists of verses taken over from the Rgveda. But the Samaveda adds musical annotations to these verses, which were meant for the use of the udgatr-priest who had to sing these parts in the ritual. The Yajurveda Samhita, or the ‘collection of sacrificial formulae’, whose oldest text goes back to about 800 B.C.E., is not unitary, unlike the other collections. It is first subdivided into ‘white’ (sukla) and ‘black’ (krsna) Yajurveda, and consists of five texts, namely; the Vajasaneyi Samhita belonging to the White Yajurveda; and the Katha (or Kathaka) Samhita, the Kapisthala Katha Samhita, the Maitrayani Samhita and the Taittiriya Samhita belonging to the Black Yajurveda. Although these five Samhita are said to be recensions (sakhas), they are too different to go back to a single, original Ur-Yajurveda, or at least to allow such a text to be reconstructed. (See MYLIUS (1988:53). The Yajurveda Samhita, as its name shows, is mainly concerned with the sacrificial ritual. But, and this point is important for our study, it also narrates many myths, mainly in order to justify or explain certain aspects of the ritual. Finally, the Atharvaveda Samhita derives its name from the fire-priest Atharvan. According to MYLIUS (1988:32), it is as old as the tenth book of the Rgveda Samhita, but it was accepted as part of the Veda (which is often called the trayi vidya or ‘triple knowledge’) only late, and was never quite considered as the equal of the other Samhitas. This Samhita consists for the greatest part of magical formulae or charms, and is of little relevance for the solemn ritual. It contains some speculative hymns, but, as GONDA (1975:294) remarks: "These poets are [...] less inclined to make the traditional mythological figures an element of their speculations.”
The remaining Vedic texts are necessarily attached to one of the four Samhitas. We can distinguish several different groups of texts, which were roughly composed in the following) chronological order, though there are some overlaps: the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanisads and the Vedangas. The Brahmanas are prose compositions mainly dealing with the sacrifice, composed for the Brahmins. By their subject-matter, they continue the line of the Yajurveda Samhita. They give precise descriptions and explanations of the sacrificial ritual, but also contain dogmatic commentaries, philosophical speculations, and are a real treasure—trove of legends and myths, a point which makes them highly relevant for our study. (See MYLIUS (1998:63). The Aranyakas derive their name from the term aranya, ‘forest’. They probably received this appellation due to the fact that, as secret texts, they had to be studied in the wilderness. MYLIUS (1988:72) notes that the Aranyakas still mainly concern the sacrificial ritual, but not in a concrete sense: they give the ritual a mystical—a1legorical interpretation leading to meta-ritualistic ideas. The Upanisads mark a break in the Vedic literature. While retaining a connection with the sacrifice, they are also philosophical texts, recording, for instance, the emergence of the theory of samsara (cyclical reincarnation), the identification of atman and brahman, etc. Finally, the Vedangas, or auxiliary texts of the Veda, contain treatises on the ritual, phonetics, grammar, etymology, metrics and astronomy. They are all composed in the very terse sutra-style. Of these, only the auxiliary texts concerning the ritual, or Kalpasutras (subdivided into srautasutras, concerning the solemn ritual, and grhyasutras, concerning the domestic ritual) are of some limited relevance for us. In the course of this study, and mainly for the sake of convenience, we shall principally distinguish between the Rgveda Samhita, due to its greater antiquity, and the rest of the Vedic texts, which will be grouped together under the denomination of ‘the later Veda’. As for the two Sanskrit Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, let us first note that although we distinguish them by the appellation ‘Epics’, the Indian tradition itself does not generally consider that they belong to the same literary genre. The MBh is usually classified as itihasa (history), a genre to which also belong, most importantly, the Puranas, whereas the R is considered as a kavya, even as the adi-kavya, the ‘first poem’, because of its more refined form, and also because it marks the beginning of a long line of poetry. However, the tradition is not unanimous in this respect; the MBh sometimes refers to itself as kavya and the R is also classified by certain writers on alamkarasastra as itihasa. These two works, however, present enough overall similarities to justify their common designation as ‘Epics’. The MBh and the R are voluminous works: in their unabridged form, they contain respectively about l00'000 and 25'000 verses (slokas), somewhat less in the critical editions. Their dates are the subject of much dispute, and no real consensus has been reached on this score. The broad spectrum of dates which is often and for somewhat mysterious reasons given for these texts is 400 B.C.E. to 400 C.E., but this is valid only if we accept that they were composed in successive stage. Concerning the relative priority of these two texts, no consensus has been reached either, and it seems indeed that it is impossible to determine with any certainty which one of them is older. We shall therefore consider them to be roughly contemporary. The authorship of the MBh is attributed to the sage Krsna Dvaipayana, also called Vyasa, and that of the R to the sage Valmiki. Both authors appear as characters in their own works. The MBh is composed in l8 books (parvans), and describes the fratricidal war which opposes two sets of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who tight over the inheritance of the kingdom of Hastinapura. The R is composed in 7 books (kandas) and describes the exile of Rama, prince of Ayodhya, and his subsequent war with the demon Ravana who has kidnapped his wife Sita Apart from these central events, both Epics contain digressions on various topics. This trait is much more prominent in the MBh, which contains also much didactic material similar in content to that of treatises of law (dharmasastras), and less so in the R, where these digressions are limited to the first and last books.
From the Jacket :
This book studies several mythical motifs, found in the Veda (especially in the Rgveda) on the one hand and in one or both Sanskrit epics on the other: Agni's hiding, the theft of the Soma, Indra's rape of Ahalya, Upamanyu's salvation by the Asvins, and finally the representation of the Great War of the Mahabharata as a sacrifice. While it is often said that the subsequent Indian literature only paid "lip-service" to the Vedas without really knowing and even less understanding these texts, the present study not only shows that many Vedic myths are still kept alive in the Epics, but more importantly that their deep underlying meaning was perfectly understood by the epic mythmakers, and reactualized to fit the changed religious conditions of epic times.
About the Author:
Danielle Feller was born in Switzerland in 1965. She studied Sanskrit at the Universities of Lausanne, Switzerland and then Pune, India. She now teaches Indian Religions and Sanskrit at the University of Lausanne. The present book is the outcome of her doctoral dissertation, defended in Lausanne in 2001.
CHAPTERS
About the Book
The book presents a comparative study of some Vedic elements such as deities, mantra-s, rituals, myths etc., reflected in the Purana-s. Purana-s, the literature of the masses, attempt at the re-statement of the meaning of the Vida-s in their own style. In doing so, they resort to additions, omissions, simplifications and modifications; yet the main stream is never lost sight of.
Well considered arrangement of the chapters and two appendices, giving a bird's eye-view of the position of the Vedic mantra-s in the Purana-s, special features of the book. It is hoped that this seminal work, presenting a comparative angle, would be of great help to those interested in such studies.
About the Author
Dr. Gauri Mahulikar, a lover of Sanskrit form her childhood, is a promising scholar and researcher.
Passing both her graduate and post-graduate courses from the University of Mumbai, with top rank, Gauri mahulikar won the Limji gold medal for her dissertation, "Ancient Greek Dramas and Bharata's Natyasastra.
She has presented many research papers in different national seminars and oriental conferences. Besides these, she has some research articles, which have been published in reputed journals.
The Title of the book - 'Vedic Element in the Puranic mantra-s and rituals' The Puranas are a class of literature which attempt at the re-statement of the meaning of the Vedas in their own style. While doing so, the Puranic texts never disregard the Vedic traditions. Being very proud of their ancient heritage, the Puranas, sometimes modify and simplify the Vedic concepts but never bypass them totally. In each and every minute detail of the daily chore, such Vedic glimpses can be seen.
Element means a componet part. Vedas are regarded as the whole and Puranas, a part of it, a component part, which hardly deviates from the whole. Being a component part, Puranas can never be separated from the Vedas and therefore they are to be interpreted and studied in the light of the Vedas. On the other hand Vedas too, devoid of the Puranic background are not properly understood. Hence the Vedic elements in the Puranas are dealt with in this work. By element it is meant that whatever is vedic in notion, conception and perception, found in the Puranas, that is to be considered. But this would be a very vast subject. Therefore, the Vedic element is restricted only to the mantra-s and rituals of the Puranas. (The rituals are regarding the deities and hence they are discussed). Many legends and myths are related to rituals. Hence, an inclusion of myths and mythical accounts regarding the deities. For easy and quick comprehension, the chapters are named after the deities. The work is based mainly on the information and material from the Puranas and therefore, the order of the deities in accordance with the superiority of the Puranic dieties. Though this work is not based on the Vedic studies as such, the information from the Puranas is compared with the Vedic references wherever possible.
Selection of the topic
Many scholars, so far, have studied the Puranas in the light of the Vedic background, which Agrawala says, "was "their (Puranas') main expositional purpose as enuciated in the dictum that the Vedas are to be substantiated with the Itihasa and Purana. However, the works of the scholars are restricted mainly, to the social, historical and geographical material. Similarly there are works oil independent Puranas such as Matsya, Agni, Markandeya." Brahma:
yayu,1 Bhavisya2, Linga3 , Garuda4, Kurma5 , Bhagavata6 etc. With some exceptions all these works depict the cultural, historical, geographical, social or philosophical aspects found in the Puranas, The present work, however, tries to present the ritual and mythological material as well. Secondly, we find many Vedic mantras employed in different contexts of worship by the Purana-writers. These mantra-s at places, are addressed altogether to a new deity, not intended by the Vedic seer. Such interesting places are traced back to their original Vedic sources to give a clear picture of their use in different contexts.
Regarding the influence of the Vedas on the Puranas, there is a difference of opinion. Gyani feels that 'the Vedas, though regarded as divince revealations, did not exercise any direct influence on the religious life of the people as such," whereas Hazra says that 'the authors of the Puranas realized that unless the authority of the Vedas was established among the people, the popularization of the asrama-dharma was almost impossible. Hence they adopted various means for the purpose" With due respect to Gyani's work, it can be stated that even though the Vedic rituals were not practised in toto during the Puranic days, the modified and simplified version of the Vedic ritualism was certainly observed through the observance of the vows etc. It is true that many times the Puranas refer to the meditation of certain Vedic hymns, without referring to the cult of Vedic ritual; but it can be justified that during the passage of time the Vedic ritual cult lost its popularity but the recitaton of the mantra-s was already a part of the routine and so the mantra-s remained in practice whereas the rituals were forgotten.
Considering all these points, it was found that the topic of research was of much more interest and hence it was selected.
Indian thought is characterised by simplicity, freshness and a distinct variety of its own, which are not traceable in other thoughts in the field of human civilization. This fragrance of Indian thought makes itself manifest in the diverse branches of religious and philosophical, moral and ethical studies and as a result, of having an idea of the profundity of Indian mind, it becomes necessary of having been acquainted with the varied concepts of religion and philosophy, morality and ethics, politics and sociology as developed through many centuries across the globe. The grand structure of Indian religion bears ample proof to the brilliant skill and talent of the great masterminds beginning from the age of the Vedic seers down to the exponents of innumerable religious sects and philosophies, belonging to different sections of Indian philosophy.
The present work entitted 'Continuity of Vedic Rituals in the Mahabharata' deals with the genesis and development of Vedic sacrifices, with an eye on their unceasing continuity in the great epic. The Mahabharata, as the adage goes, is a compendium of literary, social, economic, political, philosophical and ethical doctrines and here a modest attempt has been made by the author in analysing some thechnicalities associated with ritualistic details of various Vedic sacrifices. It is indeed heartening to note that Dr. Narayan Chandra Santra, has been successful to a great extent in elaborating the epic concept of various Vedic rituals and to present to the bar of the academic world the intellect and wisdom of the Vedic seers on the diverse fabric of ritualistic niceties in Indian religion and philosophy.
The monograph embodies the doctoral thesis submitted by Dr. Santra in support of his candidature for admission to the Ph.D. (Arts) degree of the Jadavpur University. DIvided into four chapters, the treatise makes on attempt in dealing with the nature and concept of some prominent Vedic sacrifices as reflected in the Mahabharata. The Vedic literature, with the transition of the age of the Samhitas to the age of the Brahmanas, is marked by stagnation of poetic inspiration and at the same time, it is overshadowed with the dry and barren thought that centres around the multitude of rituals and their accessories. This period, however, is a passing phase and one is astonished to trace the flash of philosophical urges and enquiries to the riddles of the universe. The Upanisadic period of the Vedic era tries to solve the mystery in an ingenious way, giving rise to a whole philosophical system, marked by eternal freshness. Though the phase, represented by the Brahmana literature is ephemeral, still to get an insight of the Vedic mind it is indeed imperative to have an idea of the sacrifices and their crucial role in the field of religion and philosophy.
Chapter Two of the present work takes within its ambit a detailed analysis of sacrificial rituals such as Dasahotr, Saptahotr and Caturhotr ceremonies as well as Rajasuya and Asvemedha sacrifices. In this connection, other interesting religious, philosophical and moral concepts have been treated by the author in order to show their continued presence in the corpus of the great epic.
I congratulate the author for his remarkable contribution towards the interpretation of ritualistic technicalities as expounded and developed in the voluminous text of the Mahabharata. I am confident the book will be received with a warm welcome by critical readers, both in the East and the West.
Preface
The present work embodies the doctoral thesis entitled "Continuity of Vedic Rituals in the Mahabharata" which is being submitted for the Ph.D. (Arts) dergee of Jadavpur University. The monograph represents the results of researches carried on the various ritualistic aspects as dealt with in the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata is regarded as a store-house of literary, social, economic, political, philosophical and ethical concepts and a humble attempt has been made here to present some ritualistic details as described in the great epic.
I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to my respected teacher, Professor Ramaranjan Mukherjee, Ex-vice-Chancellor, Burdwan University, for his constant encouragement in the preparation of the work. I am deeply indebted to my learned teacher, Prof. Sukumari Bhattacharji, who very kindly suggested the topic of my research work. I pay my deep respect and gratitude to my revered teacher, Sri Hemanta Kumar Ganguli, who has rendered me kind help by his expert and versatile knowledge. On this occasion I express my warm gratitude to my respected teacher and supervisor of this thesis, Dr. Bhabani Prasad Bhattacharya, Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Jadavpur University, and also to my teachers Prof. Gopika Mohan Bhattacharya, Prof. Sitanath Goswami and Dr. Rabisankar Banerjee, Reader in Sanskrit, Jadavpur University. My heartfelt gratitude is also for Dr. Sachindra Kumar Maity, Reader in History, Jadavpur University, for his kind appreciation and constructive suggestions. I felt it to be my solemn duty to pay my respect to Dr. Dhananjoy Das, Reader in Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University for his inspiration and encouragement to my academic pursuit. I am thankful to my friend, Sri Surendranath Deb, Reader in Sanskrit, Burdwan University, who has rendered great help in my research work. I express my sincere gratitude to my well-wishers, Srimat Swami Lokeswarananda Maharaj of Ramakrisna Mission Institute of Culture and Srimat Swami Atmanandaji Maharaj, General Secretary, Bharat Sevasram Sangha also for showing their keen interest in this work of mine out of affection towards me. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not mention the name of Sri Bhupal Prasad Mandal, Head Master, Khanchi G.A. Vidyapith, who has rendered invaluable assistance by his constant encouragement. Last but not the least, I am extremely grateful to Sri Subas Dutta for his unstinted labour in making a beautiful type-script out of an illegible handscript. At the end I convey my thanks to Sri Abhoy Burman, Publisher, Sanskrit Book Depot for bringing out the book with a short time.
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