Shiva: The Infinite

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The roots of Shaivite concepts are supposed to lie in phallic worship which was in practice amongst the aborigines in India. Shiva must have emerged out of phallus. Cosmologically the phallus is connected to the primordial pillar, which forms the axis of the universe. The practice of phallic worship existed in early Indo-Aryans. It is correlated to the principle of fertility, and it goes back to Mesopotamian period. Phallic worship was prevalent in all ancient civilizations. There are phallic representations in ancient Abyssinia, Somalia and Egypt. The tribes in Africa, especially in Kenya and Tanganyika have long cultivated tradition of phallic worship. The myths about Shiva assuming the form of a Kirata point out to his early association with the tribes of Vindhya region. Shiva resides in mountains, with his body covered with ashes gathered from funeral pyres (Chita-Bhasma), wears tiger skin or elephant's hide, is found of putting on snakes. The Ganas or followers of Shiva are also said to be possessing obnoxious characters forming a retinue of outlandish beings. They may be exaggerated representations of the ethnic others. The macabre practice of wearing a human skull. Shaivite concepts are discernible in the Indus valley civilization, with the concept of Shiva as Pashupati. Amongst the Upanishads-Shwetashvara, Jabala, Atharvashiras and Atharvashikha propound Shaiva Siddhanta. The concept of linga was further developed at the ontological level, and linga represented the highest level of perfection with two of its aspects the male and the female. They were also termed as Nada and Bindu. Shaivism developed through Agamas and Vedas and one of its philosophical systems is Shaivadvaita. Then came several sects of Shiva worship-most prominent amongst these are four: Siddhantamargis, the Pashupatas, the Mahavratadharas and the Kapalikas. The Pashupata system is based on five principals of Karya, Karana, Yoga, Vidhi and Duhkhanta. The Pashupata Shaivism as described in the Mahabharata decries caste system, Mahavratadharas and the Kapalikas carried the practice of Shivopasana to extremes with difficult vows. Besides several other schools of Shaivism sprung up later on. The Sarvadarshana Samgraha of Madhavacharya gives the details of five amongst these Pashupata, Shaiva, Pratyabhijna, Rasheshvara and Aulukya. Some of these schools imbibed the practice of human sacrifice. Jarasandha used to sacrifice the war prisoners to Lord Shiva (Mahabharata, Sabha Parna, 21. 98). Philosophically, twenty-six categories are accepted in Shaiva Siddhantar, of these twenty-four are discussed in Samkhya philosophy and added to them are two Shiva and Shakti. Guru Dakshinamurti is Shiva's silent form. In the form of linga, he is placed in the centre of a circular base, which represents female generative organ. This is suggestive of the union of Shiva and Shakti. Shakti is creative energy and is always conceived in female form. The Shiva-linga is also envisioned as a column of light and is called the Jyotirlinga. Many Puranas, including the Shiva Puran, relate the stories about the primordial Jyotirlinga. Brahma and Vishnu were quarrelling as to who is greater amongst the two, when they saw a column of light rising from the ground. Brahma in the form of a swan and Vishnu in the form of a boar went far above and down to seeking its upper and lower limits which both of them could not reach. Shiva then revealed himself before them in the form of the divine linga. The other story described how the wandering Shiva in naked was seen by the wives of the sages who became infatuated by the sight and overcome with lust they followed the mendicant wherever he went. The enraged sages cursed Shiva to make his phallus fall on the ground but the phallus started growing and assuming infinite proportions when dropped on the ground causing the entire universe to tremble. Shiva could forgive the sages only on condition that they will worship him in the form of the linga. There was a stage when the cult of phallic worship synthesized with the idea of the cosmic pillar. Atharva Veda presents the bridges between the two; on one hand there is a hymn on Stambha (the pillar) in it, on the other it extols Rudra. Ashvalayan Grihyasutra mentions the following names of Shiva: Hara, Mrida, Shiva, Bhima and Shankara. Amarakosha, the first authentic work in Sanskrit lexicography enumerates the following names of Shiva: Shambhu, Isha, Pashupati, Shiva, Shulin, Maheshvara, Ishvara, Sharva, Ishan, Shankara, Chandrashekhara, Bhutesha, Khandaparshu, Girisha, Mrida. Mrityunjaya, Krittivasah, Pinakin, Pramathadhipa, Ugra, Kapardin, Srikantha, Shitikantha, Kapalabhri, Vamadeva, Mahadeva, Virupaksha, Trilochana, Krishanuretah, Sarvajna, Dhurjati, Nilalohita, Hara, Smarahara, Bharga, Trayambaka, Tripurantaka, Gangadhara, Andharipu, Kratudhvansin, Vrishadhvaja, Vyomakesha, Bhima, Bhava, Sthanu Rudra and Umapati. Apart from linga, Shiva images are found in various forms and recovered from all parts of India. Apart from North it is so much popular in South India too. The worship of Shiva also crossed the boundaries of India and reached in many Asian countries whose material remains in the form of images and temples still exist, although the sect is not prevalent today in those regions. Due to the popularity of this sect people used to visit Kailash-the abode of Shiva every year by fessing so many difficulties. Kailash-Manasarovar Yatra is the dream of every Hindu. Buddhist and Jain pilgrim of India and Tibet.

Shaivism developed through Agamas and Vedas and one of its philosophical systems is Shaiva-dvaita; then came several sects of Shaivism. Apart from linga, Shiva images are found in various forms and recovered from all parts of India. Apart from North it is so much popular in South India too. The worship of Shiva also crossed the boundaries of India and reached in many Asian countries whose material remains in the form of images and temples still exist, although the sect is not prevalent today in those regions. For the readers who are eager to know every aspect of this famous Hindu sect by reading a single book the author has tried to present this book before them. Although, the subject is very vast and broad, in spite of this the author has tried his best to include all the aspects of Shaivism in this book.

Dr. G. K. Lama, Professor, Department of AIHC & Archaeology, Centre of Advanced Study, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, having specialization in the field of Archaeology, Buddhism, Art & Architecture and Asian Studies, has 61 books in his credit till date. He has presented 90 research papers in various National and International seminars and 130 research papers have been published in various reputed journals, edited books, conference proceedings and felicitation volumes. He has completed a Major Research Project entitled Archaeological Investigation in and around Nalanda, granted by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, which was submitted in 2015. The author has also completed 16 projects regarding archaeological investigations in Sikkim, Eastern and Western UP and Bihar with the kind permission of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. He has invited twice to Sri Lanka, and once to Nepal and Thailand to deliver special lectures.