Ethical Controversy and Norms

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At the very outset, we have to analyse deeply as to how ethical controversy, in all its form somehow or other involves the establishment and application of certain norms. In this process, we find that when people pass moral judgments about the action, choices, decisions and characters of others, the judgments which they make are often disputed. For example, when we pass a moral judgment about 'John', that 'He is a despicable person'. Here, another disagrees. He has always found 'John' to be perfectly upright in his dealings with him. When the situation like this arises, each party to the dispute would try to defend what he has said by giving certain reasons. One points out that John is always polite, never goes back from his words, and pays his debts; the other claims that John tends to ignore people's feelings, he is insensitive to sufferings, and so on. It is from situations like these that the issues with which further study is concerned arise. Here, it is significant to note that the burning question arises as to what is involved in the nature of ethical controversy by which people seek to justify their moral judgments and how ethical controversy always involves some norms and standard of morality. In order to understand the above issues more clearly, it is necessary to first understand the nature of ethical controversy then only we can understand how norms play very important role in it. Ethical controversy gives rise to difficulties which are peculiar to itself, and which are in some ways more acute than. those with which other fields of philosophy are concerned. These are largely due to the nature of the subject-matter with which the ethical philosophers deal. There are striking differences between the typical empirical disputes (such as arises in history, science, economics, etc.), and the typical ethical disputes. Suppose, for instance, someone tells that the statue of 'Gautam Buddha of main temple of Bodh-Gaya has been moved to old temple and somebody disagrees. This would be a characteristic empirical disagreement and the important thing to note is that, although, it may be difficult to decide which of us is right, we can at least imagine what would solve the dispute. As soon as, we go to the main temple and verify the situation on our own, we both are convinced. Here, the disagreement ends. On the other hand, in moral disputes or ethical controversy, it becomes very difficult to end the disagreement. Often these are not decidable, even in principle, simply because the disputants cannot even agree over what criterion is to be applied. They each have reasons for the judgments that they make, but neither admits the relevance of the other's reasons. Here, controversy reaches deadlock. From the above discussions, we can gather that the possibility of this sort of disagreement makes it clear that in morality, reasons play a quite different role. Indeed, so great are the differences that in the past, philosophers have been tempted to offer analysis of moral judgments, which would rule out the possibility of controversy in morality, or at least reduce it to some variety of persuasions or propaganda. Thus, ethical judgments have been compared to statements of likes and dislikes, or to the expressions of approval and disapproval. Such theories may make us feel that reasons play a very minor part, or perhaps no part at all, in ethical discourse. Here, our aim is not to discuss the present-day philosopher's account of ethical or moral controversy but rather to see what is the real nature of ethical controversy and what types of norms are involved in it. and how on the basis of those ethical norms or ethical laws human actions are guided in the society. In doing so, we shall enter into an analysis and examination of available forms and models of ethical controversy highlighting both its general and unique features. It is also felt that ethical controversy, in all its forms, somehow or other, involve the establishment and application of certain norms. Hence, ethical inquiries become a normative inquiry. Now, the outline of the plan of our study becomes clear. The present study would seek to uncover (not merely to discover) normative elements, either present or involve in ethical controversy which is the backbone of human progress. Ethical Controversy and its Preliminary Specifications The purpose of this section is to assess in brief the specified models of ethical controversy. Ethical controversy may take different forms and models on the basis of cognitivistic and non-cognitivistic schemes. On the question of the nature and function of moral judgments, meta-ethical theories are broadly divided into cognitivistic and non-congnitivistic theories. Cognitivistic meta- ethical theories maintain that the function of a moral judgment is information-giving. On the contrary, the non-cognitivistic meta-ethical theories do not accept moral judgments to be informative in character. For them, moral judgments have altogether different functions to perform. The theories of ethical controversy or moral inquiry may also be classified on the same pattern. Cognitivistic theories of ethical controversy intend to establish the truth or falsity of a moral judgment. Since this theory regards ethical expressions to be factually informative thus the ethical disagreements can be completely resolved by the use of factual reasons. On the other hand, non-cognitivistic theories of ethical controversy may intend to end the disagreement in attitude betwen the disputants. Hence, according to this theory no amount of factual information can completely resolve ethical disagreement. The cognitivistic theories of ethical controversy may be divided into deductive and non-deductive. Similarly, the non-cognitivistic theories of ethical controversy may be divided into different forms.

This book contains vivid explanation about the nature and meaning of ethical controversy from different perspectives and ultimately, it establishes how norms and standard of morality play very important role in ethical controversy. This work is first of its kind in gathered form in the history of moral philosophy as previously, most of the thinkers used to deliberate that reasons and norms almost play no part in ethical controversy. But here the author very clearly and lucidly discusses as to how ethical controversy, in all its form, somehow or other involves the establishment and application of certain norms and on its basis, human conducts are guided in the societies and social structures. This book is useful for the students, researchers and for general readers too, as it is very interesting, simple and easy to understand and grasp.

Dr. Gautam Sinha is a Professor, P. G. Dept. of Philosophy, Gaya College, Gaya, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya (India). After outstanding results, both at the stage of B. A. and M. A., he was appointed as a paid University Reasearch Scholar and within record time, he obtained his Ph. D. Degree in the year 1986, which still stands unbroken. Apart from a number of scholarly articles, his another striking article 'The Concept of Vedic Education' was suggested as the only alternative to the present-day educational system by the Learned Editorial Board of the Indian English Newspaper 'The Hindustan Times'. This reflects his acumen in writing for general readers too. A good number of his papers are also published in Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Journal of Asian Philosophy Congress, Paramarsh, Proceedings of Indian Philosophical Congress, Darshnik Traimashik and many others connected with U. G. C. Seminars, Conferences, Workshops etc. His other books 'Where is God', 'Treasure of the Gita', 'The Essence of Yoga', 'Fundamentals of Universal Religion' are also in the press besides, some more are in the