About
the Book
In the fascinating saga of ancient
scientific ideas and techniques, Indian accomplishments hold an exalted
position. India displayed its originality not only in mathematics and
computational astronomy but also in holistic medicine, metallurgy and other
fields. For reasons known and unknown, however, India did not develop a
rational, methodological and verifiable matrix for ushering in modern science
until the nineteenth century. But when modern science was finally introduced to
India by the British, India did not view it as alien to its ethos. India welcomed
it instead, and several bright Indian scientists scaled the peaks of
excellence.
The main
objective of SCIENCE IN
INDIA is to present to the general reader a comprehensive
narrative about the history of science in the country. Based on authentic sources
and their in-depth study, this book deals with the origins, ramifications and
achievements in traditional astronomy, mathematics, medicine and chemical
practices, besides certain concepts related to the physical world as well as
plant life. It also
discusses the advent and growth of modern science till Independence,
highlighting the seminal contributions of Indian scientists who won
international acclaim. This is a historical and factual perspective on science
in India, traversing a span of more than 5,000 years.
About
the Author
B. Subbarayappa (MSc. PhD), a chemist turned historian and
philosopher of science was the elected President (1998-2001) of the History of
Science division of the International Union of History and Philosophy of
Science (under ICSU. Paris)-the first
non-Westerner to be elected. He is regarded
as a pioneer in the studies of science in India and he has been devoted to
these studies over the last five decades. He was the recipient of the
Copernicus Medal from the Polish Academy of Sciences (1973) and has received
the Karnataka State Award (2008). He has also been awarded by the National
Academy of Sciences. India, of which he is an elected Fellow,
and has an Honorary Doctorate (1999) from the University of Bologna.
He was Honorary
Visiting Professor at the National Institute of Advanced Studies. Bangalore. He
was also formerly Member Secretary, National Commission for History of Science
in India and Director, Nehru Centre, Mumbai. He retired as Executive Secretary.
Indian National Science Academy. New Delhi.
He is the
author/editor of twenty books and over a hundred papers on the history of
Indian science. science and society, and related
themes.
Preface
The history of
science, like history, owes its authenticity to the preserved records or
visible, knowable sources. A historian of science is governed by them, as it
were, in his analysis, interpretations and perspectives. There are mainly two
kinds of sources for the history of science and technology in India- literary
and archaeological. The wealth of scientific manuscripts (by and large in
Sanskrit) and preserved in a number of repositories in and outside of India, is
indeed impressive. They shed light on the scientific tradition in astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, plants and the like, which have been fostered in India
for over two millennia. However, there are not many manuscripts on
technological aspects; practically none on metallurgy in which India had
attained great heights, particularly in iron, steel and zinc, as evidenced by
extensive archaeological data relating to them. It is amazing that, even though
astronomers, mathematicians and medical men lived separately in far off places
and in different centuries, they adopted the same scientific terminology and
wrote their treatises more or less in the same style; likewise, the
metallurgists and other technicians functioned and displayed their skills in
the ancient and medieval periods.
In the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the methodology-centred modern
science was introduced into India by the British colonial administration,
Indians welcomed it because of their scientific tradition and contributed to
its progress, specially in
the twentieth century. The records of the East India Company and of the
colonial government are reputed to be the best preserved records in the world,
and they are valuable sources for evaluating the advent and growth of modem
science in India.
The dedicated
endeavours of several European scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, and later of Indian savants, have led to valuable publications for
understanding traditional sciences, besides the archival documents, for the
evaluation of the historical development of modem science in India.
A historian of
science in India now has a large repertory of source-materials-both primary and
secondary including books and articles-and has the benefit of the wisdom of a
great many scholars of yore. The author of this book is enormously indebted to
all of them. The preparation of this book, intended for university students and
enlightened general readers, would not have been possible but for their
valuable publications bequeathed to us.
An attempt has
been made in this book to present a historical perspective on science in India,
from early times to Independence. Its Introductory Overview, the first chapter,
is to provide the reader a bird's-eye view of the whole canvas of the book. The
second chapter tries to delineate briefly the early scientific ideas and
practices, especially those of the physical and plant world. Chapters 3-7 deal
with traditional astronomy, mathematics, chemical practices and medicine. The
eighth and last chapter discusses the development of modem science in India
before Independence, with a brief account of its growth in the West so that it
could serve as a background for understanding its nature and structure.
Science in
India, whether traditional or modem, needs to be understood in the context of
the developments in the contemporaneous cultures or regions, as well as its
educational dimensions. This book also attempts to discuss briefly these
aspects, besides the advent and growth of Islamic astronomy and medicine (Unani) in India.
It is my fond
hope that this book will be found useful by all those who are interested in
understanding our scientific tradition over the ages. My
humble efforts will be amply rewarded if the book
appeals to young students and induces them to undertake researches in this
fascinating field.
Foreword
The Indus
Valley Civilization or the Harappa Culture as the archaeologists prefer to call
it, was by far the largest of the three ancient
civilizations, the other two being the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian. It
flourished for well over 700 years (2600-1700 BCE) and
lasted in a decadent phase for a couple of centuries more. This civilization
was especially noted for its functional town planning, drainage system, public
water bath, standardized bricks, copper-bronze technology, agricultural
production and management. However, we are still in the dark about its thoughts
on astronomy, mathematics, medicine and the like, since the so-called Indus
script has not been deciphered so far.
In its
historical matrix, science in India has two facets: one, traditional astronomy, mathematics, medicine and the
physical worldview, the origins of which can be traced to the Vedic and the
post - Vedic period; and two, the advent and growth of modern science in India.
In the ancient and medieval periods up to the nineteenth century, India witnessed
remarkable achievements in computational astronomy, mathematics, medicinal as
well as surgical practices and metallurgy. Some of them, like the adoption of
the decimal place-value system using only nine digits and zero, certain
surgical practices like rhinoplasty, zinc metallurgy,
iron macro-technology, and the production of high quality steel, had no
parallels elsewhere then. Besides, Indian mathematical achievements were of
high order.
The Rgveda had set the tone: 'Let noble
thoughts come from everywhere unhindered and overflowing'-and thus
open-mindedness characterized our scientific heritage. In the ancient and
medieval periods, Indian scientific and technical achievements were due to both
endogenous intellectual efforts and exogenous influences, but much more of the
former. Among the exogenous influences, special mention needs to be made of the
Hellenistic geocentric planetary astronomy-along with its epicyclic
and eccentric methods, which are still a debatable issue-and its concept of,
and naming of the seven days of the week after planets; Graeco-Arabic
or Unani medicine; Chinese Taoist ideas and practices
which provided seed ideas for the Rasasastra and
for Siddha medicine; paper production and
pyrotechnics.
Although the
recording tradition was not the forte of India, which preferred oral
transmissions for a long time, the large number of scientific and related
manuscripts, especially from the thirteenth century onwards, preserved in
various repositories in and outside of India, speak volumes about the
scientific activities fostered by Indian savants over the centuries-and these
are of great value to the understanding of our scientific tradition.
Such a
tradition knew no barriers of religion or region. Thus, when modem science (it
was called Western science then) was introduced into India, largely by the
British, in the nineteenth century and in the colonial period, Indian
intellectuals and even the common people did not think of it as an intangible
intruder; instead, they welcomed it. In the twentieth century, several Indian
scientific pioneers emerged, including a Nobel Laureate in physics, who won
international acclaim. In addition, the freedom movement was also a source of
inspiration to them. The charismatic leader Jawaharlal Nehru was a votary of
science, and the scientific attitude or 'temper' as he called it, even before
India attained Independence. Under his leadership, modem science and technology
took rapid strides for the betterment of the poverty-stricken masses of the
country.
It is significant
that, even in the modem scientific milieu, traditional sciences have not taken
a back seat. For traditional astronomy coexists with modem
astronomy in India; likewise, traditional medicine and technology.
In this book,
Professor B.V. Subbarayappa has brought out in a
lucid fashion the various facets of the developments in science and technology
in an exceedingly comprehensive manner. He has brought to bear his
extraordinary scholarship in delving into the details of Indian contributions
to astronomy, mathematics, material sciences and the various aspects of the
medical systems over millennia. A striking and unique aspect of his
presentation relates to the coherent structuring of the evolution of ideas and
knowledge in different epochs in each of the topics-which demands the highest
level of versatility and familiarity with the related details of these
fundamental and applied sciences. The way Prof. Subbarayappa
has, for example, dealt with the presentation and discussions in the chapter on
mathematics- starting from the Vedic period through succeeding centuries, going
through Aryabhata I, to contributions in mathematics,
geometry, trigonometry, followed by the growth of the Kerala School in the
fourteenth to nineteenth century-really highlights this versatility. Further,
he goes on to critically appraise the Indian contributions in these fields, in
the context of the influences from Greece, Islamic traditions, along with the
links with Chinese contributions. A similar trait can be seen in the discussions
related to astronomy, chemical techniques and alchemy, Ayurveda and other
medical systems like Siddha and Unani.
In the last
chapter, 'The New Entrant: Modem Science in India', Prof. Subbarayappa
has broadly outlined the developments in science during the Renaissance in
Europe, going through a chronological sequence of developments and covering the
works of such titans as Galileo, Johannes Kepler and
Isaac Newton. He further traces the developments in nineteenth-century sciences
including atomic theory, the emergence of the periodic table, the seminal
contributions made in electromagnetics, developments
in biology including evolutionary theories followed by the more modem theories
such as quantum mechanics and the general theory of relativity. The corresponding
Indian developments, starting from the seventeenth century to the initiation of
the major scientific endeavours of Jawaharlal Nehru also help to update the
reader on the continuing march of science and its relationship to society.
On the whole, it
is the most comprehensive account of the historic march of science in our
country that I have come across. Prof. Subbarayappa's
narration emphasizes the pride of position that India enjoyed in developing and
contributing ideas and enlightenment for the welfare of humankind over
millennia. I am sure this book-which has a host of unique information that
Prof. Subbarayappa has carefully included-will not
only serve the purpose of providing a comprehensive account of the great
contributions that have emerged from this continent since time immemorial, but
will also trigger fresh ideas and research in new directions for those who are
interested in pursuing scientific endeavours. As expected, this work will
certainly be an outstanding contribution to the scientific heritage of this
country for all times to come.
Contents
Preface |
ix |
|
Foreword |
xiii |
|
Acknowledgements |
xvii |
|
l. |
An
Introductory Overview |
1 |
2. |
Early
Scientific Ideas and Practices |
50 |
3. |
Astronomy:
Its Computational and Other Dimensions |
121 |
4. |
Mathematics:
Approach and Achievements |
225 |
5. |
Chemical
Techniques and Alchemical Practices |
282 |
6. |
Ayurveda:
A Holistic Medical System |
365 |
7. |
Other
Medical Systems: Siddha and Unani |
405 |
8. |
The
New Entrant: Modem Science In India |
445 |
|
Further
Reading |
581 |
|
Index |
593 |
About
the Book
In the fascinating saga of ancient
scientific ideas and techniques, Indian accomplishments hold an exalted
position. India displayed its originality not only in mathematics and
computational astronomy but also in holistic medicine, metallurgy and other
fields. For reasons known and unknown, however, India did not develop a
rational, methodological and verifiable matrix for ushering in modern science
until the nineteenth century. But when modern science was finally introduced to
India by the British, India did not view it as alien to its ethos. India welcomed
it instead, and several bright Indian scientists scaled the peaks of
excellence.
The main
objective of SCIENCE IN
INDIA is to present to the general reader a comprehensive
narrative about the history of science in the country. Based on authentic sources
and their in-depth study, this book deals with the origins, ramifications and
achievements in traditional astronomy, mathematics, medicine and chemical
practices, besides certain concepts related to the physical world as well as
plant life. It also
discusses the advent and growth of modern science till Independence,
highlighting the seminal contributions of Indian scientists who won
international acclaim. This is a historical and factual perspective on science
in India, traversing a span of more than 5,000 years.
About
the Author
B. Subbarayappa (MSc. PhD), a chemist turned historian and
philosopher of science was the elected President (1998-2001) of the History of
Science division of the International Union of History and Philosophy of
Science (under ICSU. Paris)-the first
non-Westerner to be elected. He is regarded
as a pioneer in the studies of science in India and he has been devoted to
these studies over the last five decades. He was the recipient of the
Copernicus Medal from the Polish Academy of Sciences (1973) and has received
the Karnataka State Award (2008). He has also been awarded by the National
Academy of Sciences. India, of which he is an elected Fellow,
and has an Honorary Doctorate (1999) from the University of Bologna.
He was Honorary
Visiting Professor at the National Institute of Advanced Studies. Bangalore. He
was also formerly Member Secretary, National Commission for History of Science
in India and Director, Nehru Centre, Mumbai. He retired as Executive Secretary.
Indian National Science Academy. New Delhi.
He is the
author/editor of twenty books and over a hundred papers on the history of
Indian science. science and society, and related
themes.
Preface
The history of
science, like history, owes its authenticity to the preserved records or
visible, knowable sources. A historian of science is governed by them, as it
were, in his analysis, interpretations and perspectives. There are mainly two
kinds of sources for the history of science and technology in India- literary
and archaeological. The wealth of scientific manuscripts (by and large in
Sanskrit) and preserved in a number of repositories in and outside of India, is
indeed impressive. They shed light on the scientific tradition in astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, plants and the like, which have been fostered in India
for over two millennia. However, there are not many manuscripts on
technological aspects; practically none on metallurgy in which India had
attained great heights, particularly in iron, steel and zinc, as evidenced by
extensive archaeological data relating to them. It is amazing that, even though
astronomers, mathematicians and medical men lived separately in far off places
and in different centuries, they adopted the same scientific terminology and
wrote their treatises more or less in the same style; likewise, the
metallurgists and other technicians functioned and displayed their skills in
the ancient and medieval periods.
In the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the methodology-centred modern
science was introduced into India by the British colonial administration,
Indians welcomed it because of their scientific tradition and contributed to
its progress, specially in
the twentieth century. The records of the East India Company and of the
colonial government are reputed to be the best preserved records in the world,
and they are valuable sources for evaluating the advent and growth of modem
science in India.
The dedicated
endeavours of several European scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, and later of Indian savants, have led to valuable publications for
understanding traditional sciences, besides the archival documents, for the
evaluation of the historical development of modem science in India.
A historian of
science in India now has a large repertory of source-materials-both primary and
secondary including books and articles-and has the benefit of the wisdom of a
great many scholars of yore. The author of this book is enormously indebted to
all of them. The preparation of this book, intended for university students and
enlightened general readers, would not have been possible but for their
valuable publications bequeathed to us.
An attempt has
been made in this book to present a historical perspective on science in India,
from early times to Independence. Its Introductory Overview, the first chapter,
is to provide the reader a bird's-eye view of the whole canvas of the book. The
second chapter tries to delineate briefly the early scientific ideas and
practices, especially those of the physical and plant world. Chapters 3-7 deal
with traditional astronomy, mathematics, chemical practices and medicine. The
eighth and last chapter discusses the development of modem science in India
before Independence, with a brief account of its growth in the West so that it
could serve as a background for understanding its nature and structure.
Science in
India, whether traditional or modem, needs to be understood in the context of
the developments in the contemporaneous cultures or regions, as well as its
educational dimensions. This book also attempts to discuss briefly these
aspects, besides the advent and growth of Islamic astronomy and medicine (Unani) in India.
It is my fond
hope that this book will be found useful by all those who are interested in
understanding our scientific tradition over the ages. My
humble efforts will be amply rewarded if the book
appeals to young students and induces them to undertake researches in this
fascinating field.
Foreword
The Indus
Valley Civilization or the Harappa Culture as the archaeologists prefer to call
it, was by far the largest of the three ancient
civilizations, the other two being the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian. It
flourished for well over 700 years (2600-1700 BCE) and
lasted in a decadent phase for a couple of centuries more. This civilization
was especially noted for its functional town planning, drainage system, public
water bath, standardized bricks, copper-bronze technology, agricultural
production and management. However, we are still in the dark about its thoughts
on astronomy, mathematics, medicine and the like, since the so-called Indus
script has not been deciphered so far.
In its
historical matrix, science in India has two facets: one, traditional astronomy, mathematics, medicine and the
physical worldview, the origins of which can be traced to the Vedic and the
post - Vedic period; and two, the advent and growth of modern science in India.
In the ancient and medieval periods up to the nineteenth century, India witnessed
remarkable achievements in computational astronomy, mathematics, medicinal as
well as surgical practices and metallurgy. Some of them, like the adoption of
the decimal place-value system using only nine digits and zero, certain
surgical practices like rhinoplasty, zinc metallurgy,
iron macro-technology, and the production of high quality steel, had no
parallels elsewhere then. Besides, Indian mathematical achievements were of
high order.
The Rgveda had set the tone: 'Let noble
thoughts come from everywhere unhindered and overflowing'-and thus
open-mindedness characterized our scientific heritage. In the ancient and
medieval periods, Indian scientific and technical achievements were due to both
endogenous intellectual efforts and exogenous influences, but much more of the
former. Among the exogenous influences, special mention needs to be made of the
Hellenistic geocentric planetary astronomy-along with its epicyclic
and eccentric methods, which are still a debatable issue-and its concept of,
and naming of the seven days of the week after planets; Graeco-Arabic
or Unani medicine; Chinese Taoist ideas and practices
which provided seed ideas for the Rasasastra and
for Siddha medicine; paper production and
pyrotechnics.
Although the
recording tradition was not the forte of India, which preferred oral
transmissions for a long time, the large number of scientific and related
manuscripts, especially from the thirteenth century onwards, preserved in
various repositories in and outside of India, speak volumes about the
scientific activities fostered by Indian savants over the centuries-and these
are of great value to the understanding of our scientific tradition.
Such a
tradition knew no barriers of religion or region. Thus, when modem science (it
was called Western science then) was introduced into India, largely by the
British, in the nineteenth century and in the colonial period, Indian
intellectuals and even the common people did not think of it as an intangible
intruder; instead, they welcomed it. In the twentieth century, several Indian
scientific pioneers emerged, including a Nobel Laureate in physics, who won
international acclaim. In addition, the freedom movement was also a source of
inspiration to them. The charismatic leader Jawaharlal Nehru was a votary of
science, and the scientific attitude or 'temper' as he called it, even before
India attained Independence. Under his leadership, modem science and technology
took rapid strides for the betterment of the poverty-stricken masses of the
country.
It is significant
that, even in the modem scientific milieu, traditional sciences have not taken
a back seat. For traditional astronomy coexists with modem
astronomy in India; likewise, traditional medicine and technology.
In this book,
Professor B.V. Subbarayappa has brought out in a
lucid fashion the various facets of the developments in science and technology
in an exceedingly comprehensive manner. He has brought to bear his
extraordinary scholarship in delving into the details of Indian contributions
to astronomy, mathematics, material sciences and the various aspects of the
medical systems over millennia. A striking and unique aspect of his
presentation relates to the coherent structuring of the evolution of ideas and
knowledge in different epochs in each of the topics-which demands the highest
level of versatility and familiarity with the related details of these
fundamental and applied sciences. The way Prof. Subbarayappa
has, for example, dealt with the presentation and discussions in the chapter on
mathematics- starting from the Vedic period through succeeding centuries, going
through Aryabhata I, to contributions in mathematics,
geometry, trigonometry, followed by the growth of the Kerala School in the
fourteenth to nineteenth century-really highlights this versatility. Further,
he goes on to critically appraise the Indian contributions in these fields, in
the context of the influences from Greece, Islamic traditions, along with the
links with Chinese contributions. A similar trait can be seen in the discussions
related to astronomy, chemical techniques and alchemy, Ayurveda and other
medical systems like Siddha and Unani.
In the last
chapter, 'The New Entrant: Modem Science in India', Prof. Subbarayappa
has broadly outlined the developments in science during the Renaissance in
Europe, going through a chronological sequence of developments and covering the
works of such titans as Galileo, Johannes Kepler and
Isaac Newton. He further traces the developments in nineteenth-century sciences
including atomic theory, the emergence of the periodic table, the seminal
contributions made in electromagnetics, developments
in biology including evolutionary theories followed by the more modem theories
such as quantum mechanics and the general theory of relativity. The corresponding
Indian developments, starting from the seventeenth century to the initiation of
the major scientific endeavours of Jawaharlal Nehru also help to update the
reader on the continuing march of science and its relationship to society.
On the whole, it
is the most comprehensive account of the historic march of science in our
country that I have come across. Prof. Subbarayappa's
narration emphasizes the pride of position that India enjoyed in developing and
contributing ideas and enlightenment for the welfare of humankind over
millennia. I am sure this book-which has a host of unique information that
Prof. Subbarayappa has carefully included-will not
only serve the purpose of providing a comprehensive account of the great
contributions that have emerged from this continent since time immemorial, but
will also trigger fresh ideas and research in new directions for those who are
interested in pursuing scientific endeavours. As expected, this work will
certainly be an outstanding contribution to the scientific heritage of this
country for all times to come.
Contents
Preface |
ix |
|
Foreword |
xiii |
|
Acknowledgements |
xvii |
|
l. |
An
Introductory Overview |
1 |
2. |
Early
Scientific Ideas and Practices |
50 |
3. |
Astronomy:
Its Computational and Other Dimensions |
121 |
4. |
Mathematics:
Approach and Achievements |
225 |
5. |
Chemical
Techniques and Alchemical Practices |
282 |
6. |
Ayurveda:
A Holistic Medical System |
365 |
7. |
Other
Medical Systems: Siddha and Unani |
405 |
8. |
The
New Entrant: Modem Science In India |
445 |
|
Further
Reading |
581 |
|
Index |
593 |